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iRAPHY 


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A.D. 


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EEFEBENCE  CHART  OF  THE   WORLD'S   RESOLBCES,    PliODLXTIONS,  AJIB    TRADE. 


A 
COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


FOR   ACADEMIES,  HIGH   SCHOOLS 
AND   BUSINESS   COLLEGES 


JOHN   N.  TILDEN,   M.A.,  M.D. 


AUTHOR   OF    "  A    GKAMMAR    SCHOOL   OEOCiRAPHY 


%El'-lSED   AND   ENLAKGED   EDITION 
1900 


THOS.   R.   SHEWELL  &. COMPANY 

BOSTON      NEW    YORK ,    CHICAGO        . 


A 
COMMERCIAL  CEOGRAPHY 


FOR   ACADEMIES,   HIGH    SCHOOLS 
AND   BUSINESS   COLLEGES 


BY 

JOHN    N.  TILDEN,  M.A.,  M.D. 

AUlllnR   OF    "  A    GRAMMAK    SCHOOL    GEOCRAPHV  " 


%EyiSED   AND   ENLARGED   EDITION 
1900 


THOS.   R.  SHEWELL  &   COMPANY 

BOSTON      NEW    YORK     CHICAGO       .. 


Copyright,  l.sin.  1S92.  IWlfl,  lUiiO.  by  John  N.  Tildes. 


,     NoriBooU  ?i)rtBB 

4  ^.  CtlshiuK  &  C').  —  BerwicV 


PREFACE 


A  LARGK  proportion  of  boys  in  schools  expect  to  enter  business  life.  Com- 
paratively few  have  opportunity  for  the  extended  training  given  by  a  college  course, 
and  must  depend  upon  the  academy,  the  high  school,  or  the  commercial  school  for 
their  preparation.  The  problem  is  to  give  boys,  having  a  limited  time  at  their 
command,  the  training  and  knowledge  that  will  be  of  the  greatest  practical  value 
in  a  commercial  life.  A  good  knowledge  of  what  are  known  as  fundamental  branches 
is  necessary;  but,  beyond  these,  it  has  been  difficult  to  decide  what  branches 
of  instruction  will  prove  of  greatest  practical  service.  Political  economy,  civics, 
physics,  chemistry,  history,  and  the  modern  languages  are  helpful  toward  training 
the  mind ;  but,  if  the  languages  be  excepted,  the  branches  named  do  not  directly  give 
the  practical  results  that  are  so  much  needed. 

If  some  facts  bearing  upon  the  active  commercial  questions  of  the  day  could 
be  brought  within  the  scope  of  a  text-book,  it  would  seem  to  supply  a  want. 
Among  these  questions  are,  the  routes  and  growth  of  commerce, — the  production- 
centres  and  the  markets  of  the  world,  —  waterways  and  railways,  and  the  increase 
of  commerce  as  related  to  the  growth  of  cities.  The  staple  articles  of  commerce, 
their  relative  value  and  importance,  would  also  deserve  attention. 

With  a  view  of  partly,  at  least,  fulfilling  this  object,  I  have  prepared  this  text- 
book of  Commercial  Geography.  The  need  of  such  a  book  has  been  felt  in  my  own 
school  work,  and  it  is  hoped  that  other  teachers  may  find  it  useful  in  giving  pupils 
some  ideas  of  the  magnitude  of  the  wiuliTs  i.roduction,  in  showing  the  interdei^'u- 
dence  of  nations  for  the  necessities  as  well  as  the  luxuries  of  life;  and  in  presenting 
many  facts  of  practical  value  relating  to  commerce. 

While  Commercial  Geography  deals  mainly  with  the  interchange  of  commercial 
products,  it  is  also  essential  that  the  student  should  know  something  about  the 
countries  and  localities  where  the  raw  materials  are  found,  liow  the  latter  are 
obtained,  what  the  processes  of  manufacture  are,  how  interchange  is  effected,  and 
what  ratio  home  consumption  bears  to  export.  All  these  are  important  questions, 
that  must  be  studied  if  practically  useful  knowledge  is  to  be  assimilated. 


285385 


A  due  sense  of  perspective  has  dictated  that  the  staple  commodities  wliich 
direct  the  world's  commerce  should  receive  that  greater  share  of  attention  which 
would  be  impossible  were  any  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  countless  products  of 
many  lands  to  be  attempted.  The  salient  and  vital  facts  which  concern  man's 
activities  are,  after  all,  but  few  in  number. 

The  merely  geographical  order,  which  is  necessary  in  treating  of  the  physical 
and  political  aspects  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  has  here  yielded  place  to  a 
treatment  of  them  in  the  order  of  the  importance  of  their  existing  commerce  ivith 
the  United  States.  The  industries  and  commerce  of  our  own  country  receive,  for 
obvious  reasons,  much  fuller  consideration  than  is  given  to  those  of  any  other 
country;  and  following  this  chapter,  in  their  order,  are  the  chapters  on  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  France,  Brazil,  etc.  In  each  of  these  the  colonies  and  the  home 
country  are  appropriately  brought  together. 

To  teachers  using  this  book,  I  would  recommend  frequent  reference  to  descrip- 
tive geography,  and  the  bringing  to  the  notice  of  classes,  articles  from  the  current 
press  bearing  upon  commerce,  the  chief  productions  of  the  world,  and  allied  topics. 

Brief,  but  comprehensive  re'view  chapters  on  mathematical,  physical,  and  de- 
scriptive geography  are  given,  so  that  the  foundation-work  for  the  study  of  Commer- 
cial Geography  may  be  well  laid. 

la  connection  with  the  text,  and  in  smaller  type,  are  presented  interesting 
details,  containing  information,  not  so  nuicli  for  memorizing,  as  to  illustrate  the 
current  lesson.  This  feature,  serving  as  it  does  to  separate  the  essential  from 
the  non-essential,  will  at  once  commend  itself  to  the  class-teacher. 

Geography,  both  political  and  commercial,  has  been  changing  materially  during 
the  closing  years  of  the  century,  so  that  it  has  seemed  best  to  thoroughly  revise  this 
work  to  agree  with  the  latest  available  statistics  and  conditions  of  trade. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  issued 
the  United  States  has  taken  the  lead  among  nations  in  the  production  of  coal,  steel, 
and  iron,  in  addition  to  her  former  and  continued  preeminence  in  the  production 
of  cotton  and  food  products. 

JOHN   N.    TILDKN. 

Pekkskii.i,.    N.Y., 

July,  I'JOU. 


COXTEXTS 


INTRODUCTION. 


C'llAl'TKK 
C'HArTKR 


rnEXSED    Rkviei 

XI)    roLITIl  AI,    (! 


):\niF.i;rK  and  Cummei 


Hk; 


CHAPTER    III. 


CHAPTER 
CHAPTER 


CHAPTER    VI. 


I'm:   Rkpublic  of  the  Uxited  States  . 

1.  Raw  Products  .... 

2.  Manufactures       .... 

3.  Commerce        .... 

4.  Seven  Principal  Seaports     . 
T).  Minor  Coast  Cities  . 

G.  Nine  Lake  Ports  .... 

7.  Ten  River  Ports      . 

8.  Other  Cities  and  Towns 

9.  Alaska,  Hawaii,  the  Philippines,  1- 

-GltEAT    BrITAIX    ami     IIi:it    ('oLl)XIES 

1.  *  England  and  ^Vak's 

2.  Scotland 

.'!.     Ireland     ..... 

4.  British  Possessions  in  Asia . 

.">.  P>ritish  Possessions  in  Australasia 

(1.  British  Possessions  in  America    . 

7.  British  Possessions  in  Africa  . 

The  Gekmax  Empire      .... 


Tiii;  IvixoDOM  OF  The  Netherlaxos 
Colonial  Possessions  of  The  Nethei 


CHAPTER  VII.  — The  REPrni.ic  or  Braz 
CHAPTER  VIII.— The  Kixoix.m  ok  1!kl. 
CHAPTER  IX.  — The  Kixgdom  ok  Italy 
CHAPTER   X.  — The  Republic  of  Me-xki 


,sc> 
.s<s 
•Id 
;»4 
its 
U)r, 

los 

112 

111 

117 

lis 


12.-. 
12S 


CHAPTER 
CHAPTER 
CHAPTER 


•  The  Em  it  he  of  Japax 


XII.  —  The  Empire  of  China l'}2 

XIII.  —  Othek  CorxTKiEs  OF  Europe: 

1.  The  Empire  of  Russia     . 

2.  The  Republic  of  Switzerland 

3.  The  Empire  of  Turkey    . 

4.  The  Kingdom  of  Greece 

5.  Norway  and  Sweden 

6.  Denmark      .... 

7.  Austria-Hungary     . 

8.  Portugal       .... 


CHAPTER   XIV.  — The  Kix 
CHAPTER 


Spai 


XV.  —  Other  North  Americax  Countries  : 

1.  The  Central  American  States 

2.  The  Island  of  Haiti     . 

3.  Cuba 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


■  Other  South   American  <'ch- 

1.  Venezuela 

2.  The  Argentine  Rei)ublic 

3.  Colombia 

4.  Chili     .... 

5.  Uruguay . 

6.  Ecuador 

7.  Peru 

8.  Paraguay 

9.  Poll  via    . 


CHAPTER   XVII. — CoMMoniTiEs  Important  to  Commer( 


Pood  Substances 

Textile  Substances . 

]\Ietals 

Other  Mineral  Substauci 

:\Iiiuufacturc(l  Prodiu'ts 

MiscclhnuHnis  I'mducts 


13o 
138 
138 
140 
140 
141 
142 
143 


148 
149 
149 


151 
1.51 
153 
154 
1.55 
150 
].-.(; 
157 
1.58 


KiO 
Kid 
11)9 
173 
178 
182 


NOTE   UPON   THE  REFERENCE  CHART. 


To  THK  Teaciieu: 

Till'  Cliari  Willi  which  this  book  opens  lias  been  prepared  as  a  supplenient  to  tlie  maps  tliat  are 
inteis]).  r^r,l  in  ih.  iixt,  in  order  to  afford  in  one  view  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  world's  commer- 
cial acii\  iiii-.   iimI  .  -in'cially  for  purposes  of  reference  in  the  study  of  international  as  distinguished 

riic  iliart  liaving  been  examined,  and  explained  in  the  light  of  the  color-key  which  accom- 
I)aiiies  li,  cciiain  general  features  will  at  once  suggest  themselves,  upon  which  oral  instruction  may 
frijiii  tiiiH'  lo  lime  be  given. 

Tlio  devices  of  coloring  are  such  as  to  make  it  plainly  apparent  — 

1.  That  man's  activities  as  a  whole  are  largely  determined  for  him  by  his  physical  surround- 
ings: thus: 

2.  That  his  labors  in  production  are  mainly  restricted  to  the  land  surface  of  the  globe;  that 
is,  to  about  one-fourtli  of  its  area; 

3.  Tliat  this  fourth  lies  mainly  in  the  Northern  Ilemisphere; 

4.  I'liat  man's  energies  are  further  limited  by  temperature,  this  in  turn  depending  upon  alti- 
tude as  well  as  latitude,  and  modified  by  trade-winds  and  ocean  currents; 

5.  That  the  most  active  industries  are  as  yet  confined  to  about  one-seventh  of  the  earth's 
land  surface,  lying  in  the  temperate  zones  of  Europe  and  North  America;  and 

6.  That  tlielatitude  of  this  field  is  hidier  in  Europe  than  it  is  in  America, 

The  people  of  the  world  seeking  fertile  lands  and  easy  means  of  communication  have  found 
both  in  the  great  river-basins,  as  in  China,  India,  Egypt,  and  our  own  Central  States.  The  rich  soil 
of  these  great  basins  is  the  deposited  wasliiiigs  frdnrtlie  higher  lands.  These  higher  lands  accord- 
ingly tend  everywliere  to  become  less  and  le-s  i.iddn.iive.  The  Amazon  basin  has  climatic  oondi- 
tions-wliich,  thougli  favorable  to  vegetalil"  life,  iii.lii  it  to  be  the  seat  of  an  industrial  civilization. 
Hence  it  is  but  thinly  peopled.  In  another  eiiiiatciial  land,  that  of  the  upper  Congo,  the  conditions 
are  far  better,  owing  to  altitude  and  a  more  even  distribution  of  rainfall.  In  this  newly  explored 
area  a  dense  savage  population  is  already  giving  way  before  tlie  encroachments  of  Europeans. 

The  amount  and  regularity  of  rainfall  is  everywhere  a  condition  upon  which  food  production 
largely  depends.  The  regions  of  Africa,  Australia,  and  southwestern  Asia  shown  in  white  upon  the 
Chart  are  desert  and  unproductive  mainly  because  they  are  rainless. 

Such  questions  as: 

Why  13  the  interior  of  the  Australian  continent  undeveloped  ? 

What  region  of  Asia  is  naturally  rich,  but  bacliward  in  iuternationiil  trade,  and  why  ?  of  Africa  ?  of  South 
America  ?  of  Canada  ? 

What  reason  can  you  give  why  maritime  commerce  had  its  beginnings  in  .Southern  Europe  ? 

On  what  ocean  is  commerce  most  active,  and  why  ? 

Where  are  the  principal  railway  systems  of  tlie  world  ? 

In  what  grand  divisions  are  the  great  manufacturing  centres  ? 

Locate  the  principal  agricultural  areas  of  the  Northern  Hemispliere  : 

These  and  the  cognate  questions  which  they  will  suggest  must  exaite  in  the  minds  of  students 
thai,  interest  which  i.s  everywhere  the  best  aid  to  good  teaching. 

At  the  several  stages  of  progress  General  Reviews,  as  a  test  of  the  pupil's  acquirement,  should 
be  founded  on  this  Chart  to  show  [1]  what  and  where  the  principal  natural  resources  of  the  world 
are;  [2]  what  the  great  raw  staples  are,  whence  they  are  derived,  and  where,  and  for  what  manu- 
factured products  they  are  exchanged,  and  [.3]  what  proportion  of  trade,  when  considered  by 
countries,  is  ilomestic,  foreign,  by  land,  by  water. 

The  subject  of  Commercial  Geography  readily  lends  itself  to  such  supplementary  discursiv;^ 
treatment  as  can,  in  the  judgment  of  the  teacher,  be  suitably  given  to  it  at  the  successive  stages. 
For  the  life  of  man,  every.where  and  at  all  times,  has  a  direct  bearing  and  dependence  upon  produc- 
tion and  trade.  We  have' as  yet  but  touched  upon  the  possibilities  of  production.  The  science  that 
has  restocked  exhausted  fishing-grounds  in  river,  lake,  and  bay,  will  one  day  teach  us  to  levy  at  will 
upon  the  inexhaustible  food-supply  of  the  deep  seas.  The  science  which  long  since  prescribed  the 
rotation  of  field-crops  is  already  busy  with  the  reclamation  of  desert  lands  by  forestry  and  irrigation. 
Science,  utilizing  the  wondrous  fecundity  of  animate  nature,  enables  us  to  multiply  beeves,  while 
fiesh-eating  animals,  our  rivals  for  this  kind  of  food,  are  exterminated;  and  teaches  us  to  plant 
trees  for  fruit  and  shade  where  oui'  ancestors  with  less  foretliouglit  felled  them  for  firewood. 

While  in  our  rapidly  progressive  time  the  human  family  is  ever  acquiring  greater  mastery  over 
the  stores  and  forces  of  nature,  it  is  interesting,  and  not  profitless,  to  note  and  consider  the  daily 
steps  of  this  progress,  and  even  to  speculate  upon  the  industrial  future  of  the  race. 


INTRODUCTION 


CONDENSED    REVIEW    OF    MATHEMATICAL,    PHYSICAL.    AND 
POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY 

GEOGRAPHY  is  a  description  of  the  earth,  its  surface,  inliabitants,  and  pro- 
ductions. 

Mathematical  Geography  treats  of  the  earth  in  its  form,  size,  and  motions,  of  the 
methods  of  nira^uriii-  its  surface,  and  of  the  ways  in  wliich  the  surface  is  represented. 

Physical  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth's  surface,  of  its  plants,  ani- 
mals, and  mini  luls,  of  the  land,  the  currents  of  the  ocean,  the  winds,  and  the  climate. 

Political  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  nations  of  the  world,  the  people  of 
those  luitiuiis.  tln'ir  nceiiiiations  and  their  forms  of  government. 

Commercial  Geography  treats  of  the  resources  and  productions  of  the  earth,  and 
of  their  distribution,  of  the  routes  of  commerce,  and  of  markets  and  manufactures. 

MATHEMATICAL   GEOGRAPHY 


A  circle  is  a  plane  figure 
bounded  by  a  curved  line,  every 
point  of  which  is  equally  distant 
from  the  centre. 

A  circumference  of  a  circle  is 
the  curved  line  that  bounds  it. 
The  circumference  is  itself  often 
called  a  circle. 

A  diameter  of  a  circle  is  a 
straight  line  which  jiasses  through 
its  centre,  and  terminates  at  op- 
posite points  of  the  circumference. 

A  radius  of  a  circle  is  a 
straight  line  drawn  from  the  cen- 
tre to  the  circumference.  . 

Every  circle  is  divided  into  360 
equal  parts,  called  der/rees  (°).  Degrees 
are  subdivided  eacli  into  sixty  minutes 
('),  and  eacli  minute  into  sixty  seconds 
(''),  or  one-tliirty-six  liundredtli  of  a  des 
of  !10°.  Such  an  arc  is  snbtended  by  a  rij 
in  the  arc  that  subteiitls  it. 


The  Circle  and  its    Parts  — 


One-fourtli  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  is  an 
)g)c.     An  angle  is  measured  by  tbe  number  of  degr 


10 


COMMERCIA  L    GEOGRA  I'll  Y 


A  sphere  is  a  body  bounded  by  a  curved  surfiice,  every  point  of  whicli  is 
equally  ilistaiit  from  a  point  within  called  the  centre. 

A  hemisphere  is  half  a  sphere. 

A  diameter  of  a  sphere  is  a  straight  line  passing  through  its  centre,  and 
terminated  by  its  surface. 

The  axis  of  a  sphere  is  the  diameter  on  which  it  may  be  supposed  to  revolve. 

The  poles  of  a  sphere  are  the  extremities  of  its  axis. 

A  spheroid  is  a  body  nearly  spherical. 

An  oblate  spheroid  is  produced  when  a  spheroid  is  flattened  at  the  poles. 

A  great  circle  of  the  earth  is  one  that  divides  it  into  two  equal  jjarts. 

A  small  circle  is  one  that  divides  the  earth  into  two  unequal  parts. 


FORM  OF  THE  EARTH.  — In  shape  the  earth  closely  resembles  an  oblate 
spheroid.     This  has  been  proved  in  several  ways. 

1.  Navigators  have  sailed  around  it. 

2.  During  a  lunar  eclipse,  when  the  earth  is  between  the  moon  and  the  sun,  the 
shadow  of  the  earth  cast  on  the  moon  is  always  circular. 

3.  As  a  vessel  approaches  land,  the  topmast  is  flrst  seen,  then  the  lower  sails, 
and  finally  the  hull  of  the  vessel. 

4.  The  horizon  from  every  point  of  view  is  circular.  In  ascending  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth  the  horizon  constantly  enlarges. 

5.  When  a  straight  line  is  surveyed  upon  any  plane  surface,  the  earth  curves 
away  from  the  line.  Civil  engineers,  in  constructing  ditches  and  canals,  must  make 
allowance  for  this  curvature,  or  at  no  very  great  distance  excavations  would  run 
out  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  At  the  distance  of  one  mile  the  curvature  is  eight 
inches,  at  two  miles  thirty-two  inches,  at  three  miles  seventy-two  inches. 

Kule:   S'/iiare  f/ir.  (ristiince  in  tiiilrs.      l'iro-f/i!n/s  of  f/iia  is  thf  riirrnfiire  infect. 


CO.MMEHCIA  1.    (lEOiillM'tl  Y 


11 


SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH.  — The  diameter  ol'  the  earth  is  nearly  .S.OOO  miles.  The 
polar  diameter  is  about  twenty-six  miles  shorter  than  the  e(juutorial  iliameter. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  nearly  25,000  miles. 

The  area  of  the  earth  is  about  197,000,000  square  miles. 

The  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun  is  about  92,000,000  miles.  It  is  estimated 
to  be  about  93,000,000  miles  in  summer,  and  90,000,000  in  winter. 

MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH.  —  The  earth  has  two  motions.  It  rotates  on  its  axis, 
causing  the  succession  of  day  and  night.  This  is  called  tlie  daily  or  diurnal  motion. 
The  earth  moving  in  its  orbit,  or  path  around  the  sun,  completes  a  revolution  in  about 
365J  days,  a  period  called  a  year.      This  is  the  earth's  yearly  or  annual  motion. 

DIRECTIONS  ON  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE. —The  earth's  axis  points  to  a 
star  called  the  north  or  pole  star.  The  pole  of  the  earth  nearest  this  star  is  the 
north  pole  ;  the  opposite  pole  is  the 
south  pole.  Every  direction  from  the 
north  pole  is  south,  and  every  direc- 
tion from  the  south  pole  is  north. 

North  is  the  direction  along  the 
earth's  surface  towards  the  north 
pole.  South  is  the  direction  towards 
the  south  pole.  Facing  the  north, 
the  direction  on  the  right  hand  is 
east;  that  on  the  left  hand,  west. 
These  four  points  are  called  the 
cardinal  points. 

Midway  between  north  and  east 
is  northeast ;  between  south  and 
east  is  southeast;  between  north 
and  west  is  northwest ;  between 
south  and  west  is  southwest.  These 
are  called  semi-cardinal  points. 

For  ascertaining  directions  at 
sea  an  instrument  called  the  mariner's  compass  is  used.  It  consists  of  a  circular 
card,  on  which  are  marked  the  cardinal  points,  with  their  twenty-eight  subdivisions, 
and  to  which  is  attached  a  magnetic  needle.  The  needle,  balanced  on  a  pivot  so  as 
to  swing  freely,  indicates  the  direction  of  the  north  and  south  poles.^ 

To  "  box  a  compass  "  is  to  name  its  points  in  order. 

'  The  compass-needle  does  not  point  exactly  north  and  south.  At  diffeient  localities  it  varies 
from  a  few  minutes  of  arc  to  more  than  ninety  degrees.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  the  variation  does  not  exceed  eight  or  ten  degrees  west  of  north;  along  the  Pacific  coast  it 
varies  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  east  of  north.  Along  a  line  drawn  from  Savannah,  Ga.,  to 
I>etroit,  Mich.,  the  variation  is  almost  nothing  ;  midway  between  New  York  and  Liverpool  it  is 
nearly  thirty-five  degrees  west. 

The  Chinese  were  familiar  with  the  properties  of  the  lodestone  from  very  early  times,  but  the 
magnetic  needle  was  little  known  to  Western  nations  till  the  fourteenth  century.     Before  that  time 


12  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

CIRCLES  OF  THE  EARTH.  —  Circles  of  the  earth  are  imaginary  lines  passing 
around  it.     Un  maps  and  globes  they  are  real  lines. 

The  equator  is  a  great  circle  passing  east  and  west  around  the  earth  at  a  distance 
midway  from  tlie  poles.  It  divides  the  earth  into  northern  and  southern  hemi- 
spheres. The  equator  passes  through  Brazil,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Celebes,  Borneo, 
Sumatra,  Zanzibar,  Soudan,  and  Lower  Guinea. 

Parallels  are  small  circles  parallel  to  the  equator.  They  mark  distances  north 
or  south  from  the  equator. 

Meridian  circles  are  great  circles  passing  through  the  poles  of  the  earth  and  are 
perpendicular  to  the  equator.  They  mark  distances  east  or  west  of  some  meridian 
taken  as  a  standard. 

A  meridian  is  half  a  meridian  circle,  and  terminates  at  the  poles. 

The  ecliptic  is  a  great  circle  passing  around  the  earth,  making  an  angle  of  23i-° 
with  the  equator. 

As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east,  one-half  its  surface  is  illumi- 
nated at  one  time  by  the  sun.  The  boundary  line  of  the  illuminated  portion  is  called 
the  circle  of  illumination,  or  dai/  circle.  It  is  therefore  a  great  circle,  and  moves 
from  east  to  west  as  the  day  advances. 

The  Tropic  of  Cancer  is  a  small  circle,  23^°  north  of  the  equator. 

The  Tropic  of  Capricorn  is  a  small  circle  2."^°  south  of  the  equator. 

The  Arctic  Circle  is  a  small  circle  23^°  from  the  north  pole. 

The  Antarctic  Circle  is  a  small  circle  23^°  from  the  south  pole. 

The  distance  of  the  Arctic  circle  from  the  equator  is  4,60.")  common  miles. 

LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE.  —  The  location  of  a  place  on  the  earth's  surface 
is  determined  by  its  distance  from  two  fixed  lines  perpendicular  to  each  other.  The 
equator  is  taken  as  one  of  the  lines  ;  a  standard  meridian  as  the  other. 

Latitude  is  distance  north  or  south  of  the  equator,  measured  in  degrees,  minutes, 
and  seconds.  Places  are  in  north  or  in  south  latitude  according  as  they  are  north 
or  south  of  the  equator.     Places  on  the  equator  have  no  latitude. 

The  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude  is  60  geogi-aphical  or  nautical  miles,  and 
averages  about  69  common  or  statute  miles. 

The  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude  varies.  The  flattening  of  the  earth  at  the  poles 
causes  the  length  of  a  degree  to  increase  as  we  go  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles. 
The  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude  varies,  therefore,  from  68.7  to  69.4  statute  miles. 

All  places  situated  on  the  same  parallel  have  the  same  length  of  day. 
.    Longitude  is  the  distance  (in  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds)  east  or  west  of  an 
established  meridian.     The  longitude  of  anj^  place  on  the  prime  meridian  is  0. 

Longitude  is  measured  180°  east  or  west  of  the  prime  meridian.'     The  prime 

the  most  extended  voyages  made  by  European  sailors  were  those  to  the  East  Indies,  around  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  To  a  great  extent,  these  were  coastwise  voyages;  but  with  the  introduction  of  the 
mariner's  compass  navigators  were  able  to  make  bolder  ventures,  and  the  great  historic  ocean  voyages 
of  discovery  speedily  followed.  The  improved  chronometer  now  carried  by  all  sea-going  ships  has 
also  greatly  contributed  to  the  precision  and  safety  of  modern  navig.^tion. 

'  For  the  convenience  of  navigators  and  astronomers,  the  custom  of  estimating  longitude  from 
0°  to  3(50°  E.,  instead  of  180°  E.  or  \V.,  is  becoming  very  common. 


COMMEIK 'IM.   GKOaHM'II Y 


13 


mpi-idian  —  tliat  of  Greenwich  —  is  the  meridian  ironi  wliioh  longitude  is  now  almost 
universally  reckoned. 

From  the  equator,  where  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  is  69.164  miles,  the 
degree  lessens  in  length  to  the  poles,  where  the  value  becomes  zero.  It  is  seen  that 
the  spheroidal  form  of  the  earth  causes  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  to  depend 
upon  the  latitude. 

A  degree  of  longitude  at  tlie  equator  measures  69.164  miles. 


t  lat.  .35°     . 

.    55.714  miles 

At 

lat 

65°     . 

.     29.319  miles 

"      40'=     . 

.     53.053     " 

70°     . 

.     23.725     " 

"      45°     . 

48  982     " 

" 

7.5°     . 

.     17.957     " 

•'      50°     . 

.     44  54)     " 

•' 

80°     . 

.     12.049     " 

'•      55°     . 

30  760     " 

" 

85° 

6.048     " 

"      60°     . 

.     ,34  669     " 

88°     '. 

1.211      " 

At  lat.  90° 

0  U  miles 

The  tiopics   and   polar  circles   divide 


the  earth's 


68.901  miles 
68.117  " 
66.821  " 
65.014  " 
62.718  " 
59.947     " 


. — A  zone  is  a   belt  or  gmlle 
surface    into   five   zones 

The  Torrid  Zone  lies  between 
the  tropics.     It  is  47°  wide. 

The  North  Temperate  Zone  lies 
between  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and 
the  Arctic  Circle.     It  is  4,3°  wide. 

The  South  Temperate  Zone  lies 
between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and 
the  Antarctic  Circle.     It  is  43°  wide 

The  North  Frigid  Zone  extends 
from  the  north  pole  to  the  Arctic 
Circle.     It  is  2^°  wide. 

The  South  Frigid  Zone  extends 
from  the  south  pole  to  the  Antarctic 
Circle.     It  is  23i°  wide. 

\^  b         FEMPEBA 

SEASONS.  —  In     each    of 
Temperate  zones  there  are  four 
sons, — spring,  summer,  autumn,  and 
winter.     The   change  of    seasons  on 

the  earth  is  caused  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth  about  the  sun,  the  rotation  on 
its  axis,  the  inclination  of  the  axis  to  the  plane  of  tiie  ecliptic,  and  the  constant 
parallelism  of  the  earth's  axis  to  itself. 

If  the  eartli  had  motion  in  its  orbit  alone,  there  would  In'  Imi  two  seasons,  —  sninnier  and 
winter.  If  the  earth's  axis  were  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  there  would  he.  no 
change  of  seasons.  If  the  earth's  axis  were  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  two 
summers  and  two  winters  in  the  equatorial  regions,  for  each  passage  of  the  earth  throughout  its 
orbit. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  two  motions  of  the  earth  and  the  inclination  of  its  axis 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  together  with  the  unchanging  direction  of  the  axis,  are 
the  causes  of  the  four  seasons  of  the  Temperate  zones. 


14 


COMMER CIA L   OEUGRA  PH Y 


The  seasons  of  the  Temperate  zones  are  not  all  of  the  same  length.  This  is 
due  to  the  elliptical  form  of  the  earth's  orbit.  The  earth  is  distant  from  the  sun 
about  93,000,000  miles  in  summer,  and  about  90,000,000  miles  in  winter.  In  the 
North  Temperate  Zone,  spring  has  ninety -three  days;  summer,  ninety -three  days; 
autumn,  ninety  days ;  and  winter,  eighty -nine  days. 

The  summer  days  increase  in  lengtli  as  we  go  from  the  equator  toward  tlie  poles.  'J'he 
following  table  exhibits  the  lengtli  of  the  longest  day  in  the  different  latitudes:  — 


At  the  Equator 
Lat.  10°  .  . 
"  20°  .  . 
At  the  Tropics 
Lat.  30°      .     . 


12  hours 
12.7  " 
13.3  " 
13.5  " 
14.0  " 
14.5     " 


Lat.  40°    ...     . 

"    45°    .     .     .     . 

"    50°    .     .     .     . 

"     55°    .     .     .     . 

•'     60°    .     .     .     . 
At  the  polar  circle  . 


15.0  hours 

15.6  " 
16.3  " 
17.3      " 

18.7  " 
24.0      " 


Lat.  67i°     ....     1  month 
"    6'JJ°     ....     2  months 
"    73.3°    ....     3      " 
"    78.3°    ....     4      " 
"84°       ....     5      " 

At  the  north  pole     .6      " 


The  World  on  Mercator's  Projection. 

GLOBES  AND  MAPS.  —  The  earth's  surface  is  usiuiUy  represented  by  globes 
and  muji.s. 

A  terrestrial  globe  is  a  sn)all  sphere,  the  surface  of  which  represents  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

A  map  is  a  representation  of  the  whole  or  of  a  ixirt  of  the  earth's  surface  on 
a  plani>. 

A  map  projection  is  a  method  of  rein-esenting  the  earth's  surface  on  a  plane. 

Mercator's  projection  is  a  method  of  map-drawing  for  the  use  of  navigators,  to 
whom  the  relative  posit  ion  of  points  on  the  land  and  the  sea  is  of  greater  importance 
than  the  contmir  of  the  eoast-line.  On  Mercator's  maps  the  meridians  and  parallels 
are  represented  as  at  riglit  angles  to  one  another. 


C0MMi:i:i  -IM.   GicoaiiA  rii  v 


15 


A  scale  of  miles  furnishes  a  unit  of  comparison  for  distances  as  shown  on  the  map  and  for  tlie 
corresponding  actual  distances  on  the  earth's  surface.  A  scale  of  miles  cannot  be  used  on  either  a 
Mercator's  projection  or  an  ordinary  map  of  a  hemisphere,  inasmuch  as  such  maps  are  distoited  in 
all  parts  except  along  the  equator.  Most  of  the  maps  in  atlases  are  drawn  on  a  conic,  polyconic, 
•or  Bonne's  projection.     A  scale  of  miles  is  fairly  accurate  on  any  one  of  these. 

The  parallels  of  latitude  are  luunbcred  on  the  side  margins  of  inai)S.  The 
meridians  of  longitude  are  numbered  at  the  top  and  tlie  bottom  margins. 

The  day  conventionally  begins  at  180°  longitude,  and  this  meridian  is  the  one  from  which  every 
date  is  reckoned.  The  first  day  of  the  week,  Sunday,  is  reckoned  from  this  meridian.  It  is  Sunday 
east  of  the  meridian  180°  ;  it  is  Monday  west  of  it.  In  sailing  westward  a  day  is  lost,  and  in  sailing 
eastward  a  day  is  gained.  Navigators,  tlierefore,  make  the  necessary  correction  to  avoid  confusion 
in  keeping  their  log-books.  Formerly,  an  arbitrary  line  was  used,  called  the  Sunday  line,  or  inter- 
national date  line;  but  its  use  has  been  given  up  by  navigators,  and  that  of  the  exact  meridian,  the 
ISOth,  has  been  adopted. 


QUESTIONS 


Define  the  term  geography.  What  is  physical 
geography  ? —  mathematical  geography  '?  —  po- 
litical geography  ?  Define  the  term  commercial 
geography. 

Name  the  various  parts  of  a  circle,  and  de- 
scribe them  severally.  How  many  degrees  in  a 
half  circle? — in  a  quadrant?  How  many  de- 
grees in  the  arc  extending  from  the  horizon  half 
way  to  the  zenith  ? 

Name  the  various  parts  of  a  sphere,  and  de- 
scribe them.  Which  circles  of  the  earth  are 
flattened,  and  therefore  matliematlcally  imper- 
fect? [Am.  —  All  those  whose  direction  is 
north  and  south.]  Which  circles  of  the  earth 
are  perfect  circles?  [^hs.  — All  those  whose 
<lirection  is  east  and  west.]  What  is  a  great 
■circle?  [Ana.  —  A  great  circle  of  the  earth  is 
•one  that  divides  it  into  equal  parts.]  How  else 
may  it  be  defined?  [.Ihs. — As  any  circle  in 
whose  plane  lies  any  diameter  of  the  earth.] 
"Which  of  the  east  and  west  circles  of  the  earth 
is  a  great  circle  ? 

What  is  the  form  of  the  earth?  How  is  it 
known  that  the  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid  ? 

What  is  the  earth's  diameter?  —  circumfer- 
ence?—  area?  —  distance  from  the  sun  ? 

What  is  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  ?  —  the 
annual  motion  ? 

What  is  the  mariner's  compass  ?  What  does  it 
show  ?  For  what  is  it  used  ?  What  is  meant  by 
"  boxing  the  compass  "  ? 

What  is  the  equator  ?  What  are  the  parallels  ? 
What  are  meridian  circles  ?  —  meridians  ?  What 
js  calculated  from  meridians  ?    What  from  paral- 


lels ?  Name  and  define  other  important  circles 
of  the  earth. 

^Vhat  is  latitude  ?  —  longitude  ?  What  places 
are  in  latitude  0°  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the 
width  of  a  degree  of  latitude  ?  —  of  the  length  of 
a  degree  of  longitude  ? 

How  many  zones  are  there  ?  Name  and  define 
them. 

How  many  seasons  are  there  in  the  North 
Temperate  Zone  !  How  is  the  change  of  seasons 
caused  ? 

By  what  means  is  the  surface  of  the  earth 
ordinarily  represented  ?  What  is  Mercator's  pro- 
jection ? 

What  meridian  of  longitude  is  frequently  used 
for  reckoning  the  beginning  of  the  day  ? 

What  points  on  the  earth's  surface  are  nearest 
the  centre  of  the  earth?  [Ans. — The  poles.] 
What  is  the  greatest  longitude  a  place  can  have  ? 
[Ans.  — 180°.]  What  places  are  in  longitude 
0°?  What  is  the  basis  of  a  geographical  mile? 
[Ans.  —One  minute  of  longitude  at  the  equator.] 

Given  the  longitude  of  any  two  places,  how 
do  we  reckon  the  difference  in  time  ?  [.lii.s.  — 
Since  the  earth  rotates  upon  its  axis  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  since  its  girth  has  360  degrees 
of  longitude,  it  is  plain  that  15  degrees  of  longi- 
tude are  equal  to  one  hour  of  time  (360-r24= 
15),  and  that  one  degree  of  longitude  is  equal  to 
four  minutes  of  time,  and  one  minute  of  longi- 
tude is  equal  to  four  secoiuls  of  time.  Multiply- 
ing the  difference  in  degrees  of  any  two  places  by 
four  must,  therefore,  give  us  the  difference  of 
time  stated  in  minutes.] 


COMMERCIAL    OEUGHAPHY 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Ever  since  the  first  land  appeared  above  the  waters  that  once  covered  the  whole 
earth,  the  surface  has  been  undergoing  great  changes.  The  fitting  of  the  outer  crust 
about  a  shrinking  interior  has  thrust  it  in  places  high  above  the  sea,  raising  it  into 
plateaus,  and  wrinkling  it  into  mountains  and  valleys.  As  soon  as  the  first  mass  of 
land  was  lifted  above  sea-level  the  waters  of  the  atmosphere  began  to  wear  it  away 
and  carry  the  detritus  back  to  the  ocean.  Frost  and  heat  have  crumbled  the  rocks 
at  their  surface  ;  glaciershave  rounded  off  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  or  scored  their 
slopes  with  deep  furrows.  Rivers  have  worn  deep  canons  into  their  beds  in  one 
place,  and  have  spread  the  scourings  about  their  lower  courses,  —  filling  up  depres- 
sions, and  levelling  them  into  broad  plains.  Turn  our  eyes  in  whatever  direction 
we  may,  there  is  no  part  of  the  earth's  surface  that  has  not  been  worn  and  changed 
by  the  action  of  the  water ;  and  the  same  forces  that  were  in  operation  when 
the  North  American  continent  rose  out  of  the  sea  are  still  as  active  as  they  were 
then. 

Physical  Geography,  or  Physiographyj  is  the  study  of  earth-sculpture;  and  if  we 
are  \villin;j;  to  read  attentively  nature's  writing  on  the  leaves  of  the  great  stone  book 
we  shall  find  that  not  only  is  the  distribution  of  life  on  the  earth  governed  by  the 
laws  of  physiography,  but  that  every  human  industry  is  also  rigorously  controlled 
by  these  laws. 

An  elevation  of  the  Atlantic  coast  plain  of  the  United  States  one  hundred  feet 
in  extent  would  destroy  nearly  every  harbor  along  the  coast,  and  at  once  crush  the 
commercial  supremacy  of  this  region.  A  slight  change  in  the  direction  of  the  winds 
might  reduce  the  rainfall  of  the  Mississippi  valley  one-half,  and  thereby  render  it 
valueless  as  a  grain-producing  region.  If  the  mild  winds  that  carry  warmth  and 
moisture  to  Europe  were  changed  so  as  to  blow  towards  the  northwest  instead  of  the 
northeast  the  climate  of  Labrador  peninsula  would  become  as  mild  as  that  of 
Virginia,  while  western  Europe  would  soon  be  shrouded  in  ice.  The  building  of  the 
Erie  canal  wrested  the  commercial  supremacy  from  Philadelphia,  and  transferred 
it  to  New  York ;  but  the  canal  could  not  have  been  made  were  it  not  for  the 
natural  gap  through  which  Mohawk  River  flows.  So,  if  we  look  closely,  we  shall 
find  that  every  commercial  enterprise  prospers  or  fails  according  as  it  obeys  or 
disobeys  natural  laws,  and  that  human  activities  can  be  intelligently  directed  only 
by  means  of  a  knowledge  of  these  laws. 

The  study  of  physical  geography  may  bo  divided  into  three  parts,  —  that  of  the 
land,  that  of  the  water,  and  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  entire  surface  of  the  earth  aggregates  about  11)7,000,000  square  miles. 
About  three-fourths  of  the  surface,  144.000,000  square  miles,  is  covered  by  water. 
Tlic  portion  not  so  covered,  r)o,OOU,000  scjuare  miles  in  extent,  is  land. 


COMMimciM.   GKomiArilY 


THE    LAND 


According  to  extent,  the  land  is  divided  into  continents  and  islands ;  and  the 
surface  of  each  may  be  diversified  by  plateaus,  mountains,  valleys,  and  plains. 

CONTINENTS.  —  A  continent  is  the  largest  natural  division  of  land.  Three  con- 
tinents are  usually  recognized,  —  the  Eastern  (or  Eurasian),  the  Western,  and  the 

Australian. 

The  Eastern  Continent  consists  of  the  grand  divisions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
It  euibract-s  nioi(>  than  half  the  land  of  the  globe. 

The  Western  Continent  includes  the  grand  divisions  of  North  America  and 
South  .Viiii'iira,      Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  nearly  10,000  miles. 

The  Australian  Continent  includes  Australia  and  Tasmania,  the  two  being  sepa- 
rated by  a  very  shallow,  island-dotted  strait. 

Tlie  two  larger  continents  are  bordered  each  by  chains  of  islands  situated  at  no 
great  distance  from  their  shores.  These,  because  of  the  similarity  of  their  struc- 
ture to  the  continents  near  which  they  lie,  are  generally  regarded  as  parts  of  the 
continents  themselves. 

ISLANDS. — -An  island  is  a  body  of  land  entirely  surrounded  by  water.  Islands 
differ  from  continents  not  only  in  size,  but  in  many  instances  they  differ  in 
strueture  also.     They  are  conveniently  classified  as  continental  and  oceanic. 

Continental  islands  are  so  called  because  of  their  similarity  of  structure  to  the 
continents  near  which  they  lie.  They  are  usually  long  and  narrow  in  shajje,'  and 
their  surfaces  are  commonly  mountainous  or  rugged.  In  many  instances  they 
lie  parallel  to  the  coast,  or  else  extend  in  a  long  chain  in  line  with  a  projecting 
peninsula.  The  Aleutian  Islands,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  chain  bordering  the 
eastern  coast  of   Asia,  are  examples. 

Continental  islands  are  usually  the  higher  crests  of  partly  submerged  mountain 

Oceanic  islands  are  situated  at  a  considerable  distance  from  any  large  body  of 
land.  In  a  few  instances  tliey  are  isolated,  and  usually  they  are  snuiU  in  size.  Gen- 
erally they  are  rugged  masses  of  volcanic  rock  rising  precipitously  above  the  surface 
of  the  water.  St.  Helena,  Jan  May  en,  the  Bermudas,  and  Ascension  Island  are 
examples. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  oceanic  islands,  however,  are  found  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Here  they  are  ranged  in  chains  having  a  northwest  and  southeast  trend, 
and  in  nearly  every  instance  they  are  covered  with  growths  of  coral.  These  islands 
appear  to  be  mountain-ranges  rising  from  the  surface  of  a  submarine  plateau. 

An  archipelago  is  a  cluster  of  islands.  The  group  of  islands  in  the  /Egean  Sea 
and  tliat  nortli  of  North  America  are  examples. 

1  Such  chains  of  isl.inds  should  not.  be  confounded  with  the  low  spits  that  border  coast  plains, 
and  that  are  situated  at  no  great  distance  from  the  latter.  Islands  of  this  character  are  formed  by 
the  action  of  rivers  which  carry  their  sediment  to  the  sea,  and  by  the  waves  which  push  back  tlie 

sediment  shoreward. 


18  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

FORMS  OF  COAST.  —  A  coast  is  the  laud  bordering  on  the  sea,  or  on  any  other 
large  boily  of  water.     A  shore  is  the  line  where  the  land  and  water  meet. 

A  cape  is  a  point  of  land  extending  into  the  sea.  Small  peninsulas  are  some- 
times called  capes,  as,  for  instance.  Cape  Ann  and  Cape  May. 

A  promontory  is  a  high,  rocky  cape.  Gibraltar,  Point  Conception,  and  Cape  of 
Oood  Hope  are  examples.  Promontories  furnish  good  locations  for  lighthouses. 
This  is  especially  true  when  the  promontory  is  at  the  angle  of  a  sharp  bend  of  the 
coast. 

The  terms  hook,  bill,  head,  point,  mull,  naze,  and  nose,  are  also  u.sed  to  desig- 
nate capes,  as  —  Sandy  Hook,  Portland  Bill,  Dunnet  Head,  Point  Barrow,  ]Mull  of 
Kintyre,  the  Naze,  the  Nose,  etc. 

A  peninsula  is  a  body  of  land  extending  into  the  sea  and  nearly  surrounded 
by  Avater.     Florida,  Italj*,  and  Lower  California  are  examples. 

An  isthmus  is  a  narrow  neck  connecting  two  larger  bodies  of  land.  The 
Isthmus  of  Panama  is  an  example. 

The  sand-bars  formed  along  the  coast  by  the  combinea  action  of  waves,  currents,  and  tides 
are  called  spits.  In  form  a  spit  may  be  a  cape,  a  long  and  narrow  island,  a  peninsula,  or  a  "  liooU." 
Sandy  Hook,  on  the  coast  of  Now  .Jersey,  is  an  example. 

RELIEF  FORMS  OF  LAND.  —  The  surface  of  the  land  is  diversified  by 
plateaus  and  plains,  mountains  and  valleys,  hills  and  dales. 

A  plateau  is  any  high  surface  of  considerable  extent.  It  may  be  level,  or 
rugged,  or  mountainous.  The  region  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  called  the  Plains, 
is  a  plateau.  Mexico  is  a  plateau,  and  the  vast  area  surmounted  by  the  Himalaya 
and  Kuen-Lun  mountains  is  also  an  excellent  example. 

Small,  flat-topped  plateaus  are  commonly  called  table-lands,  or  mesas. 

A  plain  is  a  level,  or  nearly  level,  tract  of  land  at  no  great  elevation  above  the 
sea.  Siberia  and  Eussia  form  a  vast  plain.  The  central  part  of  North  America  and 
■of  South  America  are  also  examples. 

Plains  are  variously  named.  In  the  central  United  States  they  still  retain  the 
name  prairies  given  them  by  the  early  French  explorers.  Along  the  south  Atlantic 
■coast  they  were  formerly  called  savannahs,  a  name  still  perpetuated  in  a  city  of 
Georgia.  In  South  America  the  plains  of  the  Orinoco  are  called  llanos  ;  the  forest- 
•covered  basin  of  the  Amazon,  silvas  ;  and  the  grassy  plains  of  La  Plata  (Plate)  Biver, 
pampas. 

There  is  no  dividing-line  of  elevation  between  plateaus  and  plains.  In  popular  use  the 
(jiiiilily  of  levelness  is  usually  associated  with  plains,  whether  high  or  low. 

In  physical  geography  ]il.iiiis  are  sometimes  designated  by  such  features  as  describe  their 
origin  or  formation.  Thu.  i  /  /  ,  J:;,i  is  one  formed  of  the  detritus  brought  down  from  the 
5teep  slopes  of  mountain  ii  >  i  i    I   lusited  along  the  shores  of  the  sea.     Tlie  Atlantic  coast- 

plain  is  an  example.    A/;-.'.        ,     '  III  old  sea-bed  that  has  been  elevated  above  sea-level.    The 

upper  part  of  the  Mississi|'|ii  v,iil.\  .- .m  example.  An  uUnri^rl  phiin  i'^  one  [h:\\  has  lieeii  formed 
by  the  deposition  of  silt  frum  ll.nviir^  w.iier.  Alluvial  plains.  ..|  whirl,  ihr  l..«vr  Mi^Mv-iii].!  valley 
is  an  example,  are  situated  al,,n'.'  ihr  eoins,.s  of  rivers.  A.//"-,  /-;./,/;»  i,  ili.u  i.,,ii  ..|  ;,  1 1\ .  r-valley 
tliat  is  covered  at  times  of  very  lii-h  water.     The  bottora-lamls  n(  ilie  .Mis^issipl>i  are  an  I'xample. 


commehcial  (ucoanAPiir  19 

A  mountain -range  is  a  fold  or  wrinkle  in  tlie  strata  wliioh  fonii  the  outer 
layers  of  the  earth's  crust. 

Soiiietinies  the  range  consists  of  a  single  fold;  in  some  instances,  as  in  the  Jura 
Mountains,  there  are  several  folds;  in  still  others,  as  in  the  Alps,  there  is  a  complex 
crumpling  of  strata. 

In  many  instances  the  upper  layers  of  the  fold  have  been  worn  away,  leaving  a 
series  of  parallel  upturned  edges.  The  Appalachian  Mountains  are  an  example, 
the  ranges  of  which,  in  nearly  every  case,  are  ridges  formed  by  the  unequal  wearing 
of  the  upper  strata. 

The  highest  part  of  a  mountain-range  is  called  its  summit,  or  crest ;  any  part  of 
the  crest  considerably  higher  than  the  average  elevation  of  the  range  is  s.2)eak  ;  the 
hilly  country  at  the  base  of  a  range  is  called  the  foothill,  or  piedmont  region. 

A  mountain  system  embraces  all  the  ranges  and  ridges  belonging  to  the  same 
elevation.  Thus,  tlie  western  highlands  of  North  America  form  the  Kocky-Mountain 
system. 

A  valley  is  the  depression  between  parallel  ranges  or  ridges.  The  Shenandoah 
valley  in  Virginia,  and  the  Sacramento-Sau-Joaquin  valley  of  California,  are  exam- 
ples. 

A  transverse  valley  —  that  is,  a  valley  crossing  a  range  —  is  called  a  pass, 
or  fjap.  Fremont  Pass  in  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  Delaware  Water-gap,  are 
examples.     Passes  and  valleys  having  precipitous  sides  are  usually  called  canons. 

Passes  and  gaps  are  of  the  greatest  importance  commercially,  from  the  fact 
that  they  afford  the  only  feasible  locations  for  railways,  canals,  and  other  routes  of 
transportation.  The  commercial  supremacy  of  New  York  City  is  due  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  Mohawk  Water-gap.  Khyber  Pass  in  Afghanistan  is  the  key  to  the 
door  between  India  and  Europe.  For  want  of  another  Brenner  pass,  several 
European  railway  companies  have  been  compelled  to  tunnel  tlie  Alps  in  order  to. 
reach  Italy. 

A  divide  is  a  ridge  of  land  that  separates  adjacent  river  basins.  Thus,  the 
Height  of  Land  in  Minnesota  separates  the  Mississippi  from  rivers  that  have 
Arctic  drainage.     A  divide  is  sometimes  called  a  watershed.'^ 

There  is  a  prevalent  belief  that  mountain-ranges  are  always  important  divides.  This  is 
seldom  the  case.  Tlie  Appalachian,  Kocky,  and  Himalaya  mountains  are  each  pierced  by  large 
rivers  which  flow  through  the  entire  mountain  mass.  The  explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
rivers  are  older  than  the  mountain-ranges,  and  wlille  the  latter  were  being  elevated,  the  former 
deepened  their  channels  just  as  rapidly. 

A  basin  is  the  territory  drained  by  a  river  or  by  a  lake,  each  with  its  tributaries. 

A  volcano  is  an  opening  in  the  earth's  crust,  from  which  steam,  various  other 
gases,  and  molten  rock  are  ejected. 

In  most  instances  the  ejected  material  forms  a  cone-shaped  mountain,  which  is 
also  called  a  volcano.  At  the  top  of  the  volcanic  mountain  there  is  usually  a  eup- 
shap^d  depression  called  the" crater.  '  In  some  instances  the  crater  is  a  deep  pit  in 

1  In  engineering  science  a  watershed  is  not  a  divide,  but  the  area  or  basin  drained  by  a  river. 


20  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

a  high  phiteau.     With  few  exceptions  volcanoes  are  situated  near  the  sea  or  one  of 
its  arms. 

Volcanic  ashes  consist  of  lava  so  finely  divided  that  it  may  be  blown  a  long  distance  with  the 
wind.  Tlie  alleged  smoke  of  an  eruption  is  merely  a  dense  cloud  of  steam,  while  of  fire  or  flames 
there  are  none.  Nearly  all  the  sulphur  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  tlie  craters  of  volcanoes,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  borax  used  in  the  arts  is  obtained  from  tlie  hot  mineral  springs  wliich  are 
found  in  volcanic  regions. 

Elevations  of  land  are  measured  from  mean  tide  sea-level. 

The  highest  peak  of  the  United  States  is  probably  Mount  St.  Elias,  19,500  feet.  The  crests  of 
the  Rocky-Mountain  system  vary  between  10,000  and  14,000  feet.  Most  of  the  Great  Central  Plain 
is  less  than  1,000  feet  high.  The  greater  extent  of  the  Appalachian  system  is  less  than  2,000  feet 
high.  The  highest  peak  on  the  earth  is  probably  Mount  Everest,  29,000  feet  in  altitude.  The  crest 
of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  varies  between  20,000  and  29,000  feet. 

The  deepest  known  depression  below  sea-level  is  the  Ghor  in  Asia  Minor.  Lake 
Tiberias  is  over  600  feet,  and  the  surface  of  Dead  Sea  1,300  feet,  below  sea-level. 
The  Caspian  Sea  is  the  lowest  part  of  the  largest  depression  known.  Its  surface  is 
84  feet  below  the  ocean.  There  are  several  small  depressions  in  Africa,  and  a 
number  in  the  United  States.  In  the  latter  the  princii^al  ones  are  Death  Vallej'  and 
the  sink  of  San  Felipe,  both  of  which  are  in  California.  Nearly  one-third  of  The 
Netherlands  has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea. 

A  desert  is  a  rainless  region,  or  one  in  which  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  to 
support  more  than  a  scanty  vegetation.  In  nearly  every  desert  there  are  small  areas 
watered  by  springs,  and  therefore  fertile.     Such  spots  are  called  oases. 

A  desert  is  barren  for  lack  of  water  only.  The  surface  may  be  level,  or  rugged, 
or  mountainous.  Vegetation  is  limited  to  a  few  species  of  plants,  or  it  may  be 
absent  altogether.  For  want  of  it  the  surface  soil  is  always  more  or  less  pulverized, 
and  shifting  dunes  are  commonly  a  marked  feature  of  desert  regions.  For  this 
reason  there  has  arisen  the  prevalent  belief  that  the  soil  of  deserts  is  sandy.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  true  sand  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  them.  Because  of  the  absence  of 
water  and  vegetation,  a  desert  region  of  considerable  extent  is  a  greater  impedi- 
ment to  commerce  than  a  high  and  rugged  mountain-range. 


THE    WATER 

Water  covers  about  144,000,000  square  miles  of  the  earth's  surface,  —  nearly 
three-fourths  of  the  whole.  A  small  portion  of  this  consists  of  small  bodies  of  fresh 
water  resting  in  depressions  of  the  land,  or  flowing  in  channels  over  the  surface. 
The  great  body  of  salt  water  above  the  surface  of  which  the  continents  rise  is  called 
the  Sea. 

DIVISIONS  OF  THE  SEA.  —  For  convenience  the  sea  is  divided  into  five 
oceans.     The  arms  of  the  latter  are  seas,  gulfs,  bays,  straits,  and  sounds. 

An  ocean  is  the  largest  natural  division  of  the  Sea.  The  five  oceans  are  :  the 
Pacific,  Atlantic,  Indian,  Antarctic,  and  Arctic. 


commkhcia  I.  (iFjxniA i>ii  v  21 

A  "sea"  '  is  a  nearly  laiul-locked  arm  of  an  ocean.  Tlie  Mediterranean,  Black, 
and  Ited  seas  are  exaiiii)k's. 

A  gulf  or  bay  is  an  arm  of  an  ocean  extendinj,'  into  the  land.  Hudson  I'ay 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  examples. 

A  small  bay  is  called  a  birjhl.  A  very  wide  river-mouth  formed  by  the  action  of  tides  is 
an  estuary,  as,  for  instance,  Delaware  Bay.  An  inlet  nearly  cut  off  from  the  sea  by  bars  or  spits 
is  sometimes  called  a  layoon.  A  deep  bay  formed  in  rocky  shores  by  the  action  of  ice  is  sometimes 
called  a  J'jonl.     There  is  no  particular  distinction  between  the  terms  gulf  and  bui/. 

A  strait  is  a  narrow  passage  that  connects  two  larger  bodies  of  water,  liering 
Strait  and  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  are  examples. 

This  word  is  also  commonly  used  in  tlie  plural  number;  both  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and 
Florida  Strait  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  "  the  Straits."  A  wide  passage  of  no  considerable 
length  is  usually  called  a  channel.  A  body  of  water  between  a  chain  of  islands  and  the  mainland 
is  often  called  a  sound.  A  strait  is  also  called  a  gut,  as  the  gut  of  Canso,  Hellgate  (formerly 
horll-3a(,  the  "  whirling  "  strait),  Ca.ttegat,  etc.     The  terms  mincli  and  belt  are  also  used. 

CIRCULATION  OF  OCEAN  WATERS.  — The  waters  of  the  Sea  are  in  constant 
moti(.)n.  Not  only  is  the  surface  unceasingly  tossed  by  waves,  and  blown  hither  and 
thither  in  drifts,  but  the  whole  mass  of  water  is  in  constant  circulation. 

The  agents  by  which  this  circulation  is  effected  are  waves,  currents,  and  tides. 
Waves  are  caused  by  the  winds.  They  are  irregular  but  constant.  Tides  are  regular 
and  periodical.     Currents  are  regular  and  constant. 

A  wave  consists  of  the  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  a  mass  of  water.  Most 
of  the  alterations  of  the  coast  of  a  body  of  land  are  caused  by  waves.  Waves  forty 
or  fifty  feet  high  have  been  observed,  but  they  are  of  unusual  occurrence. 

Tides  consist  of  the  passage,  twice  a  day,  of  a  wave  of  water  formed  by  the 
attraction  of  the  sun  and  the  moon. 

The  advance  of  the  wave  is  called  the  rising  or  food  tide  :  the  recession  of  the 
wave,  the  ebb  tide.  When  sun,  moon,  and  earth  are  in  line  the  tides  are  unusually 
high,  and  are  called  spring  tides.  When  their  position  forms  a  riglit  angle  the 
waves  are  less  marked,  and  are  then  called  7iea2J  tides.  At  such  times  there  are 
theoretically  four  tides  each  day,  —  two  caused  by  the  moon,  and  two  by  the  sun. 
The  latter  are  not  well  marked,  and  are  usually  disregarded. 

The  calculation  to  find  the  time  of  high  tide  at  any  place  is  called  the  estahUxhment  of  its  port. 
High  tide  at  any  place  occurs  fifty  minutes  later  each  day.  Ordinarily  tlie  difference  between  high 
and  low  tides  varies  from  four  to  six  feet,  but  when  the  wave  enters  a  V-shaped  estuary  it  may 
exceed  fifty  or  sixty  feet. 

OCEAN  CURRENTS. —Currents  are  streams  of  water  flowing  through  the 
ocean.  They  are  caused  mainly  by  the  heating  and  consequent  expansion  of  the 
mass  of  water  in  equatorial  regions.  Their  direction  is  modified  by  the  rotation  of 
the  earth,  by  the  winds,  and  by  the  position  of  the  continents. 

'  The  use  of  this  term  to  designate  any  except  the  great  body  of  ocean  water  is  unfortunate 
and  confusing.  It  is  also  very  loosely  used.  Thus,  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas  are  nothing  mhhc 
than  large  salt  lakes;  the  Haltic  and  Adriatic  seas  are  more  properly  gulfs;  while  the  North  Sea  can 
be  called  a  sea  only  by  an  effort  of  imagination. 


22  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Equatorial  Current  is  about  one  tliousand  miles  broad,  and  flows  west- 
ward with  a  velocity  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  miles  a  day.  To  tlie  parting 
of  this  current  at  the  eastern  angle  of  South  America  are  probably  due  the 
Gulf  Stream  and  the  Brazilian  Current.  It  again  divides  near  the  eastern  shores 
of  the  Old  AVorld,  forming  the  Kuro  Siwo  or  Jajjan  Current,  and  the  Australian 
Current. 

The  Gulf  Stream  is  formed  near  Florida  Strait.  Some  of  the  water  comes  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea  through  the  Yucatan  Channel;  a  part  comes  from  the  region  north  of 
the  West  Indies  through  the  Santarem  Channel ;  a  certain  but  inconsiderable  amount 
comes  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  No  part  of  the  stream,  however,  flows  around  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Off  Jupiter  Inlet,  Florida,  it  has  a  maximum  velocity 
varying  from  3  to  5^  miles  per  hour.  North  of  tlie  Grand  Banks  it  ceases  to  be  a 
definite  current,  aud  its  waters  spread  out  into  a  fan-shaped  drift  whose  motion  and 
direction  are  governed  by  the  winds. 

The  Knro  Siwo  (black  stream),  or  Japan  Current,  has  neither  so  large  a  volume, 
so  liigh  a  temperature,  nor  so  great  a  velocity  as  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The  drift  of  this  stream  is  pushed  against  the  western  shores  of  North  America. 
Contrary  to  common  opinion,  no  part  of  this  stream  enters  Bering  Sea. 

The  Arctic  Current  consists  of  two  streams,  which,  emerging  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  on  opposite  sides  of  Greenland,  unite  near  Cape  Farewell. 

These  currents  meet  the  Gulf  Stream  or  its  drift  off  the  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
and,  it  is  thought,  cause  the  dense  fogs  prevalent  in  that  region. 

A  feeble  current  emerges  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  through  Bering  Strait. 

The  Sargasso  Seas  are  somewhat  uncertain  areas  situated  in  the  regions  of  calms. 
Because  of  the  freedom  of  their  waters  from  disturbance  by  winds  they  contain  an 
abundance  of  aquatic  plants. 

In  other  shelteredTegions  wliere  tliese  plants  thrive,  great  quantities  are  frequently  detached 
during  storms  or  high  winds,  and  cast  ashore.  The  aslies  of  the  dried  plant  are  the  kdp  of  com- 
merce, from  which  iodine  is  extracted. 

CONTINENTAL  WATERS.  —  Enough  water  falls  on  the  land  yearly  to  cover  it 
to  a  depth  of  nearly  four  feet. 

Some  of  tliis  sinks  into  the  porous  soil,  perhaps  reappearing  in  the  form  of 
springs.     Another  part  evaporates,  and  is  carried  away  by  the  winds. 

Most  of  it,  however,  collects  in  channels  and,  filling  depressions,  forms  lakes 
and  ponds,  or  else  flows  back  to  the  sea. 

A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  resting  in  a  depression  in  the  land.  The  Casjuan 
Sea  and  Lake  Superior  are  examples.  Small  lakes  are  called  j/uuJs.  Lakes  without 
outlets  are  usually  salt. 

Salt  lakes  derive  their  salt  from  the  streams  and  inlets  that  feed  them.  The 
latter  dissolve  mineral  salts  from  the  soil,  and  tlie  solution  flows  to  the  lake. 
The  water  evaporates,  leaving  the  salt  behind.  The  Caspian  Sea,  Dead  Sea,  and 
Great  Salt  Lake  are  notable  examples  of  salt  lakes. 

A  lake  basin  is  the  territory  drained  by  the  tributaries  of  a  lake.     Thus,  the 


COMMKltCIAL   GEOGRAPIIY  23 

basin  of  the  Caspian  Sea  embraces  all  the  territoiy  drained  by  the  Volga,  the  Ural, 
and  several  other  rivers. 

A  river  is  a  large  stream  of  water  flowing  through  the  land.  It  may  flow  into 
another  river,  into  a  lake,  or  directly  into  the  sea.  Small  streams  are  called  rills, 
rivulets,  brooks,  and  creeks.  A  river  whicli  flows  into  another  is  called  a  tributary, 
affluent,  or  branch. 

The  term  creek  was  formerly  used  only  of  small  tidal  iidels  and  estuaries  of  the  ocean.  Il  Is 
so  used  along  the  coast  of  Maine  at  the  present  time.  The  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  called  such 
inlets  kilh.    Harlem  Kill,  Arthur  (achtyr  or  "after")  Kill,  and  Kill  von  KuU  are  examples. 

A  river  basin  is  the  area  or  territory  drained  by  a  river. 

A  river  system  embraces  the  main  stream  with  all  its  tributaries. 

A  gflacier  is  a  river  of  ice.  It  is  formed  mainly  of  the  snow  which  has  fallen 
or  blown  into  ravines  situated  in  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The  ice-stream 
flows  down  the  ravine  at  a  rate  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet  a  day. 
In  polar  regions,  glaciers  are  usually  vast  sheets  of  ice  slowly  moving  down  the 
slopes  on  which  they  lie. 

Icebergs  are  formed  when  a  glacier  terminates  at  the  sea.  Sometimes  they  are 
detached  masses  of  ice  that  fall  from  a  protruding  glacier;  but  in  general  the  end  of 
the  glacier,  pushed  to  some  distance  into  the  sea,  is  broken  off  and  floated  away. 

The  icebergs  of  the  north  Atlantic  come  mainly  from  half  a  dozen  glaciers  on 
the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  From  May  to  July  the  larger  ones  drift  about  the 
Grand  Banks,  —  a  danger  to  transatlantic  steamers. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE 

The  atmosphere,  or  air,  is  that  portion  of  the  earth  which  envelops  the  solid  ]iart. 
It  consists  of  a  mi.xture  of  gases,  —  mainly  nitrogen,  oxygen,  carbon-dioxide,  and 
the  vapor  of  water.  The  two  last  form  not  more  than  three  or  four  parts  in  one 
thousand. 

At  the  sea-level  the  air  rests  upon  the  earth  with  an  average  pressure  of  14.7 
pounds  on  every  square  inch.  Air  is  highly  elastic.  Moreover,  it  increases  in  bulk 
when  heated.     Warm  air  is,  therefore,  lighter  than  an  equal  bulk  of  cold  air. 

The  amount  of  water-vapor  varies  greatly,  increasing  when  the  temperature 
increases,  and  decreasing  when  the  temperature  falls. 

CONSTANT  WINDS.  —  Wind  is  air  in  motion.  It  is  caused  by  the  unequal 
heating  of  the  air  in  different  localities.  AVlien  at  any  place  the  air  is  heated,  it 
increases  in  bulk,  and  therefore  becomes  lighter.  It  is  consequently  pushed  upward 
by  the  cold  air  which  flows  in  to  take  its  place. 

All  general  motions  of  the  atmosphere  are  due  to  its  heating  and  expansion  in 
equatorial  regions.  This  causes  in  upper  regions  a  movement  of  air  from  the 
equator  towards  the  poles,  and  at  the  surface,  a  counter  motion  from  higher  latitudes 
towards  the  equator.  ^ 


CVMMEHriAL    (iFAX : H.i  I'll  Y 


25 


In  equatorial  regions  the  rotation  of  the  earth  dvtiects  these  currents  to  the 
west,  Miul  in  temperate  latitudes  to  the  east. 

The  trade-winds  prevail  in  equatorial  latitudes.  Tlie}'  blow  from  the  north- 
east and  from  the  southeast,  and  are  separated  b}'  the  region  of  equatorial  culms. 
The  trade-wind  belt,  with  the  intervening  ealni  belt,  oscillates  north  and  south  with 
tlie  apparent  niotion  of  the  sun. 

The  prevailing  westerlies,  or  anti-trade  winds,  are  found  in  temperate  latitudes. 
riiey  blow  from  tlie  southwest  in  the 
North  Temperate,  and  from  the  nortli- 
west  in  tlie  South  Temperate  Zone. 
These  winds  are  not  so  regular  as  the 
trade-winds.  They  are  separated  from 
the  latter  by  the  calms  of  Cancer  and 
the  calms  of  Capricorn.  '  Their  limits 
also  shift  with  the  position  of  the  sun. 

Monsoons  are  winds  which  blow 
half  tlie  year  in  one  direction,  and  the 
other  lialf  in  an  opposite  direction. 
They  usually  prevail  on  the  western 
and  southern  coasts  of  continents. 


EQU  ATOR 1 


Cyclono  Paths 


INCONSTANT   WINDS.  —  On    the 

land  the  winds  are  inconstant  and 
irregular;  and  it  is  along  the  imme- 
diate coast  regions  only,  that  the  trade- 
winds,  prevailing  westerlies,  and  mon- 
soons are  noticed. 

The  land-and-sea  breeze  is  occasion- 
ally observed  near  the  shores  of  large 
bodies  of  water.  This  wind  is  a  sea- 
breeze  by  day  and  a  land-breeze  at  night. 

During  the  day  the  earth  becomes  heated  to  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
water.  The  air  being  w-arnied,  rises,  and  the  consequent  up-draft  over  the  land  is 
accompanied  by  a  stiff  breeze  from  the  sea.  After  sunset  these  conditions  are  reversed. 
The  land  parts  with  its  heat  so  readily  that  the  air  resting  upon  it  becomes  colder 
and  therefore  heavier  than  f^at  over  the  water,  and  a  land-breeze  results. 

A  cyclone  is  a  rotatory  storm.  Cyclones  are  caused  by  the  overheating  of  the 
air  next  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This,  after  a  while,  causes  an  up-draft,  towards 
which  the  wind  blows  from  all  directions.  The  up-draft  is  the  centre  of  the  cyclone, 
or  "  storm-centre,"  towards  which  the  wind  blows  in  a  spiral,  or  whirl.  In  the 
northern  hemisphere  the  whirl  is  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a 
watch.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  it  blows  with  the  watch's  hands.  The  path  of 
the  cj'clone  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  Cyclones  of  the  sea  follow 
pretty  nearly  the  tracks  of  warm  ocean  currents. 


26  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  path  of  the  cyclone  is  usually  two  or  three  thousand  miles  in  length;  its  breadth  several 
hundred  miles.    The  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  typhoons  of  the  China  Sea  are  cyclones. 

A  tornado  is  a  rotatory  storm  which  is  prevalent  mainly  in  great  plains.  The 
path  of  the  tornado  rarely  exceeds  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  length,  and  the  destructive 
part  of  the  whirl  may  be  only  a  few  rods  in  diameter. 

A  waterspout  is  formed  when  a  tornado  passes  over  a  body  of  water.  AVater- 
spouts  are  most  prevalent  on  tlie  ocean. 

ATMOSPHERIC  MOISTURE.  —  Water  exists  in  three  forms.  Below  32°  F.  it 
is  ice,  a  solid  ;  between  32^  and  1!12°  it  is  a  liquid,  its  more  common  form ;  above 
212°  it  boils,  and  becomes  a  vapor.  A  small  portion  is  always  present  in  the  air  as 
vapor  at  all  temperatures,  however.     This  vapor  is  apart  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  amount  of  vapor  is  variable,  and  depends  on  the  temperature.  If  the 
temperature  be  high,  there  may  be  as  many  as  22  grains  of  water  in  every  cubic  foot 
of  air. 

At  100°  it  will  contain  ahout  20  grains;  at  90°,  about  15  grains;  at  80°,  about  11  grains;  at  SO^ 
only  4  grains;  and  at  32°,  the  freezing-point  of  water,  scarcely  2  grains.  If  air  at  80°  be  cooled  to 
50°,  all  the  vapor  in  excess  of  four  grains  will  be  condensed. 

When  all  the  moisture  is  present  that  can  be  held  in  the  form  of  vapor,  the 
air  is  said  to  be  saturated,  or  at  the  dew-point. 

If  the  temperature  fall  ever  so  little,  the  excess  will  appear  in  the  form  of  dew. 
frost,  fog,  cloud,  rain,  snow,  or  hail. 

CLIMATE.  —  Climate  is  the  condition  of  a  region  with  reference  to  heat  and 
moisture.  It  is  modified  mainly  by  latitude,  altitude,  winds,  and  the  position  of 
high  mountain-ranges.  It  is  also  modified  by  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis,  to 
which  is  due  the  change  of  seasons. 

Latitude  modifies  the  temperature  of  a  reghm.  In  the  Torrid  Zone,  where  the 
sun's  rays  are  practically  vertical  all  the  year,  the  climate  is  warm.  Here  tlie  only 
seasons  are  the  rainy  and  the  dry. 

In  the  Temperate  zones,  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  more  or  less  oblique,  the 
average  temperature  is  considerably  lower.  Here  there  are  alternate  periods  of  warm 
and  cold  weather,  called  summer  and  winter.  On  western  and  southern  coasts  lying 
in  the  Temperate  zones  the  seasons  are  also  divided  into  the  rainy  and  the  dry. 

In  the  Frigid  zones,  the  cold  is  intense,  and  the  seasons  consist  of  a  day 
(summer),  and  a  night  (winter),  each  six  months  in  duration. 

Altitude  modifies  temperature  mainly,  but  it  also  modifies  the  amount  of 
rainfall. 

Tlie  temperature  falls,  on  an  average,  one  degree  for  every  300  feet  of  altitude. 
In  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  there  is  perpetual  snow  above  the  altitude  of  12,000 
feet. 

The  limit  of  perpetual  snow  varies  greatly.  In  the  northern  part  of  tho  North  T.-niporate  Zone 
ft  falls  to  less  than  7,000  feet:  in  the  southern  part  it  is  above  1-1,000  feet.  It  is  luglier  on  the 
Pacilic  Ihan  on  the  Atlantic  slope. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOOllAPHY  27 

The  rainfall  lessens  also  witli  altitude.  Comparative!}^  little  rain  or  snow  falls 
above  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet. 

Winds  affect  both  temperature  and  moisture.  If  the  prevailing  winds  are 
ocean  winds,  the  seasons  are  usually  a  rainy  and  a  dry.  In  regions  swept  by  ocean 
winds  the  temperature  is  usually  ecjuable,  there  being  comparatively  little  difference 
between  summer  and  winter.  The  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States 
is  an  example. 

On  the  contrary,  if  the  prevailing  winds  are  land-winds,  the  rainfall  is  usually 
distributed  throughout  the  year.  There  is  also  considerable  difference  between  tlie 
temperature  of  winter  and  that  of  summer. 

High  mountain-ranges  materially  affect  the  rainfall  of  a  region,  especially 
when  they  are  situateil  near  a  coast  that  is  swept  by  ocean  winds. 

Thus,  the  Chilian  Andes  wring  nearly  every  drop  of  moisture  from  the  rain- 
bearing  winds.  The  western  slope  is  deluged  with  rain,  while  the  eastern  receives 
none. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  condense  the  moisture  of  the  west 
winds,  giving  the  Pacific  slope  from  25  to  100  inches  of  rain,  while  the  Great  Basin 
receives  hardly  three  inches. 

Australia  has  no  high  mountain-range,  and  for  want  of  it  the  greater  part  of 
the  continent  will  always  be  a  desert. 

WEATHER  PREDICTIONS.  —  Tlie  Weather  Bureau  of  the  United  States,  now 
nnder  tlie  control  of  tlie  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  furnishing  warnings  with  reference  to 

1.  the  approach  of  storms, 

2.  the  probabilities  of  killing  frosts, 

3.  the  probabilities  of  winds  dangerous  to  navigation, 

4.  the  approach  of  floods  in  rivers,  and 

5.  the  advent  of  cold-waves. 

The  staff  of  the  bureau  consists  of  about  eight  hundred  observers,  regular  and 
volunteer. 

Twice  a  day  the  reports  are  sent  to  the  main  office  at  Washington  from  each 
weather  station.  The  observations  are  made  at  the  same  actual  time  (not  meridian 
time)  at  all  the  stations,  and  embrace  temperature,  height  of  barometer,  direction  of 
wind,  percentage  of  cloudiness,  hnmidity,  and  amount  of  rainfall. 

The  predictions  for  the  succeeding  twenty-four  hours  are  based  on  the  fact  that 
a  storm  once  formed  travels  in  an  eastwardly  direction,  at  a  rate  that  can  be  esti- 
mated with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy. 

Most  of  the  storms  of  the  United  States  may  be  reduced  to  one  of  two  tracks. 
Those  that  originate  at  the  base  of,  or  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains  move  east- 
wardly across  the  continent.  Those  that  originate  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  or  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  sweep  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  storni  consists  essentially  of  an  area  of  low  barometer,  towards  the  centre 
of  which  the  wind  blows  spirally  from  all  directions.     The  area  of  low  barometer 


28  COMMERCIAL   GEUGllAPIIY 

may,  or  may  not,  be  accompanied  by  rain.  Almost  all  the  rain  falls  on  the  front 
edge  of  the  area  of  low  barometer. 

A  storm  originating  in  the  west  is  commonly  preceded  by  an  easterly,  and  clears 
with  a  westerly  wind.  The  Atlantic  coast  storms  are  preceded  by  a  northeasterly, 
and  clear  with  a  southwesterly  wind. 

A  cold-wave  occurs  when  the  temperature  falls  20°  or  more.  Usually  the  cold- 
wave  is  not  announced  unless  the  temperature  falls  below  45°. 

For  day  signals  four  flags  are  used.  A  square  white  flag  denotes  clear  or  fair 
v/eather;  a  square  blue  flag,  rain.  Temperature  is  indicated  by  a  triangular  blue 
flag.  This  signal  placed  above  the  square  flag  indicates  higher  temperature  ;  placed 
below  the  square  flag,  lower_  temperature  ;  omitted,  stationary  temperature.  A  cold- 
wave  is  indicated  by  a  white  flag  with  a  black  square  in  the  centre. 


QUESTIOXS 


What  is  said  of  tlie  changes  that  have  taken 
pl.ace  on  tlie  face  of  the  eartli  ?  What  are  tlie 
active  agents  that  effect  tliese  changes  ?  What 
would  be  tlie  result 
raised  one  hnmlrrd 
valley  were  drpir^siil 
do  the  laws  ili:ii  ui 
affect  human  jii.lii-ti 


the  Atlantic    coast 

feet?  — if  the   Mississippi 

d  ..n.'  lliousand  feet?    How 

11.1.  rlic   physical  geography 

rits'.'    What  are  the  three 

divisions  of  physical  geography  ?    What  part  of 

the  earth's  surface  is  land  ?   What  part  is  water  ? 

What  does  the  Eastern  continent  comprise  ? 

—  the  Western  ?  —  the  Australian  ?  llow  are 
islands  classified  ?  What  is  a  continental  island  ? 

—  an  oceanic  island?  How  do  they  differ  in 
structure?  What  is  said  of  the  wave-formed 
islands,  such  as  border  the  south  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coasts?  — of  coral  islands?  What  is  an 
archipelago  ? 

How  is  the  surface  of  the  land  diversified? 
What  is  a  plateau  ?  —  a  table-land,  or  mesa  ?  — a 
plain  ?  What  are  the  various  names  by  which 
plains  are  designated?  What  is  an  alluvial 
plain?  — a  coast  plain?  What  is  said  of  the 
commercial  importance  of  passes?  Whal  is  said 
of  the  situation  of  volcanoes  with  respect  to  tlie 
sea?  What  cominercial  products  are  obtained 
from  volcanic  regions  ?  From  what  base-level 
are  elevations  of  land  measured  ?  Name  the 
highest  peak  of  North  America.  Name  several 
important  depressions  below  sea-level.  What 
depressions  of  this  character  in  the  United 
States?  What  is  a  desert?  To  what  causes 
are  desert  regions  due  ? 

What  are  the  largest  divisions  of  the  Sea 
called  ?     Name  them  in  the  order  of  their  size. 


What  three  motions  have  ocean  waters  ?  What 
are  tides?  By  what  are  tliey  caused  ?  What  is 
meant  by  flood  tide  ?  —  ebb  tide  ?  —  neap  tide  ? 

—  spring  tide?  What  is  the  interval  of  time 
between  successive  high  tides  ?  —  [Ans.  —  About 
twelve  hours  and  fifty  minutes.]  Name  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  ocean  currents.  Describe  the 
Equatorial  current, —  the  Gulf  stream,  — the 
Kuro  Siwo,  or  Japan  current,  —  tlie  principal 
Arctic  current.  What  are  Sargasso  seas  ?  What 
commercial  product  is  obtained  from  floating 
seaweed,  and  how  ? 

Explain  how  continental  waters  are  derived 
from  the  ocean.  What  becomes  of  the  water 
that  falls  on  the  land  ?  Define  a  lake,  —  a  lake 
basin.  Under  what  circumstances  may  lakes 
become  salt  ?  What  is  a  river  ?  IJy  what  names 
are  small  streams  called  ?    What  is  a  river  basin  ? 

—  a  river-system  ?  What  is  a  glacier  ?  Jfow  does 
a  glacier  resemble  a  river?  What  is  said  of  the 
origin  of  icebergs  ?  Whence  do  many  of  the  ice- 
bergs of  the  north  Atlantic  originate  ? 

What  is  the  atmosphere  ?  Of  what  gases  is  it 
composed  ?  What  is  normally  its  weight  on  a 
square  inch  of  surface?  How  does  heat  affect 
the  atmosphere?  What  is  said  of  tlie  amount 
of  water-vapor  in  the  atmosphere  ?  How  is  the 
direction  of  the  princijial  aii-currenls  modified  ? 
Describe  the  1 1  ad.'  »  iii.l<.  Where  are  they  preva- 
lent? Whal  i- ilirir  .liivi-tion?  Where  are  the 
belts  of  picvailiii-  wi'st.'ilios?  What  is  their 
direction  ?  What  is  said  of  the  oscillation  of  the 
various  belts  or  zones  of  winds  ?  What  and 
where  are  the  various  calm-belts?  What  are 
monsoons?    In   many   instances,  how  are  they 


coM.\ii:i:riM.  <n-: 


exiilaiiied  '.'  In  ivspocl  to  constaiu-y.  iiow  Uo  l:iiul 
wiiiils  compare  wilh  ocean  winds?  What  are 
laiiil-anil-sea  breezes  ?  What  is  a  cyclone  ? 
How  do  cyclones  originate?  What  is  the  direc- 
tion of  the  path  in  each  hemisphere?  What  is 
the  direction  of  the  whirl?  What  is  said  of 
the  correspondence  of  cyclone  tracks  and  warm 
ocean  currents  ?  What  is  a  tornado  ?  —  a  water- 
spout ? 

What  are  the  three  forms  in  which  water  may 
exist?  What  causes  the  change  from  one  form 
to  another?  When  is  air  said  to  be  saturated, 
or  at  the  dew-point  ?  What  results  when  air  is 
cooled  below  the  dew-point  ? 


Wliat  is  climate?  By  what  is  it  modified? 
How  is  climate  inodifieil  by  latitude  ?  —  by  alti- 
tude ?  —  by  winds  ?  —  by  high  mountain-ranges  ? 
How  do  the  Chilian  Andes  affect  the  rain-fall  of 
South  America  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  on  the  rain- 
fall of  the  Great  Basin  ? 

For  what  was  the  Weather  Bureau  organized  ? 
By  what  department  of  government  is  it  con- 
trolled ?  What  is  meant  by  a  storm?  What  is 
the  law  of  storms  ?  Whit  are  the  principal 
storm-tracks  of  the  United  States  ?  What  is  a 
cold-wave  ?  Describe  the  various  day  signals, 
and  explain  how  they  are  used. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    AND    POLITICAL    DIVISIONS 

The  relative  position  of  the  continents  naturally  suggests  the  division  of  the 
earth  into  eastern  and  western  hemispheres. 

The  Eastern  Hemisphere  comprises  the  three  grand  divisions  of  the  Eastern 
continent,  the  Austialiau  continent,  and  a  part  of  the  grand  division  called  Oceania. 

The  Western  Hemisphere  contains  the  grand  divisions  of  the  Western  continent, 
and  tlie  remaining  portion  of  Oceania. 

A  small  part  of  the  Eastern  continent  extends  into  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and  a  small  part 
of  Greenland  lies  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

Eacli  continent  is  subdivided  into  nations  or  states,  and  colonies. 

Europe  comprises  the  kingdoms  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  The  Nether- 
lands, Belgium,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Greece, 
Kouinania,  Bulgaria,  and  Servia;  the  empires  of  Russia,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  Turkey ;  and  the  republics  of  France  and  Switzerland. 

Asia  comprises  the  empires  of  China,  Japan,  and  British  India,  and  the 
sovereignties  of  Persia,  Assam,  Siam,  Afghanistan,  Beluehistan,  Corea,  Nepaul, 
Bhotan,  and  a  large  number  of  other  small  independent  states.  British  India  is 
a  part  of  the  British  Empire  ;  Siberia  is  part  of  the  Russian  Empire ;  Asia  Minor  and 
most  of  Arabia  are  Turkish  possessions. 

Much  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  the  greater  part  of  I'.orneo,  all  of  Sumatra. 
Celebes,  Java,  and  many  smaller  islands  belong  to  The  Xethrrlands.  The  Pliilippine 
islands  belong  to  the  United  States. 

Africa  consists  mainly  of  colonial  possessions  of  European  powers.  The  Congo 
Free  State,  Abyssinia,  Liberia,  :\Ior(i('c(),  and  a  large  number  of  native  kiiigdoiiis,  are 
independent. 

Cape  Colony,  Drange  Free  State,  South  African  Republic,  Natal,  Zululand, 
Griqua  Land,  and  certain  unsurveyed  parts,  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Tripoli  ami 
Egypt  are  nominally  Turkish  possessions ;  Tunis  and  Algiers  are  Freneh  Colonies. 
:Madagascar  is  a  French  Protectorate.    Portugal  and  Gen 


ilso  control  large  areas. 


30 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Feejee  islands  are  British  posses- 
sions.    These  have  recently  formed  a  union  called  the  Australasian  Federation. 

New  Zealand  and  one  or  two  other  colonies  had  not,  in  1891,  formally  joined  the  Federation. 

North  America  comprises  the  United  States,  Mexico,  the  five  independent 
states  of  Central  America,  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  and  other 
possessions  of  Great  Britain.  It  includes  also  the  Danish  possessions,  Greenland 
and  Iceland;  and  the  West  Indies,  a  collection  of  island.s,  some  dependent  upon 
nations  of  Eui'ope,  others  upon  the  United  States. 

The  island  of  Hayti  is  composed  of  the  two  republics  of  Hayti  and  San  Domingo.  Balize,  one 
of  the  divisions  of  Central  America,  is  a  British  possession. 

South  America  is  composed  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  Venezuela.  Peru, 
Bolivia,  the  United  States  of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Chili,  —  all  independent  republics;  and  Guiana,  which  is  divided  into  English 
French,  and  Dutch  colonies. 

Besides  the  larger  and  more  important  divisions,  there  are  many  smaller  ones,  mostly  islands 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  Some  of  these  are  independent,  but  the  majority  are  under 
the  protection  of  some  one  or  other  of  the  nations  of  Europe. 


QUESTIONS 


What  are  the  two  grand  divisions  of  land  upon 
tlie  eartli's  surface  ?  How  is  tlie  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere subdivided  ? —  the  Western  Hemisphere  ? 
How  is  eacli  continent  subdivided  ? 

What  are  the  countries  of  Europe  ?  —  of  Asia  ? 
—  of  Africa  ?  —  of  the  Australasian  Federation  ? 


—  of  North  America  ?  —  of  South  America  ? 
Which  are  monarchies  ?  Which  are  republics  ? 
Which  of  the  continents  is  largest?  —  small- 
est? Which  hemisphere  contains  the  greater 
portion  of  the  earth's  land  surface  ?  [Ans.  —  The 
Northern  Hemisphere.] 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY  31 


CHAPTER   T. 
COMMERCE  AND  COMMERCIAL   HIGHWAYS 

Commerce  is  traffic  or  trade  — the  iutercliauge  of  conimodities  between  different 
countries,  or  between  places  and  persons  of  the  same  country.  Trade  may  be  con- 
ducted on  either  a  large  or  a  small  scale,  but  the  term  commerce  is  appropriately 
given  to  traffic  upon  a  large  scale.' 

The  rudest  and  earliest  form  of  commerce  consists  of  simple  barter, — the 
exchange  of  the  surplus  products  of  one  family  or  one  hamlet  for  those  of  another." 
With  increase  of  population  and  intercourse  a  tendency  arises  for  each  man  to 
devote  himself  to  the  production  of  one  thing,  or  of  a  few  things.  Let  us  say  that 
it  is  corn  which  he  can  raise  to  advantage,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  produce  every- 
tliing  that  he  needs.  His  neighbor  may  be  better  situated  to  raise  cattle.  These 
two  men  exchange  products,  each  supplying  something  that  the  other  cannot 
produce  to  advantage.  There  may  be  a  third  neighbor  who  owns  no  land,  and  who 
accordingly  raises  neither  corn  nor  cattle. 

Division  of  Labor.  —  But  if  he  is  a  mechanic,  he  may  weave  cloth,  and 
exchange  this  product  with  his  neighbors.  Thus,  wliile  one  man  produces  vegetable 
food,  and  another  animal  food,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  maintain  existence, 
the  third  produces  the  covering  necessary  to  protect  the  body  from  the  elements.' 

As  it  is  in  this  primitive  state  of  affairs,  so  it  is  in  the  world.  The  soil  of  one 
region  is  best  adapted  for  tilling ;  another  may  have  land  adapted  to  grazing,  but 
unsuited  for  tilling ;  a  third  may  be  too  densely  populated  to  depend  upon  agri- 
culture, but  by  manufacturing  articles  required  by  these  other  two  peoples,  it  can 
exchange  products  with  them. 

1  A  man  that  deals  largely  in  articles  sold  in  importing  or  exporting  is  called  a  merchant,  and 
one  that  does  business  on  a  small  scale,  or  keeps  a  shop,  is  called  a  tradesman. 

-  All  commerce,  in  its  last  analysis,  consists  in  nothing  more  than  the  barter  of  com- 
modities. What  is  called  the  "  balance  of  trade"  is  merely,  in  any  given  ease,  the  measure  of  tlie 
difference  between  the  exports  and  imports  of  goods,  which  excess  or  deficiency  is  always  made  up 
by  the  export  or  import  of  bullion;  and  the  latter  in  such  case  is  always  shipped,  not  as  money,  but 
as  merchandise,  the  market  value  of  which  varies  from  time  to  time  like  that  of  any  other 
commodity. 

*  It  was  this  necessity  for  the  specialization  of  work  that  early  gave  rise  to  the  various  simpler 
trades;  and  in  these,  by  years  of  apprenticeship,  the  artisan  has  been  prepared  for  his  life-work. 
The  division  of  labor  encourages  skill  injeach  line  of  occupation,  and  is  the  only  means  by  which 
great  excellence  can  be  reached  in  any  h.andicraft,  art,  or  science.  This  specialization  of  work  lies 
at  the  basis  of  the  world's  progress,  and  under  its  influence  the  whole  fabric  of  modern  industry  has 
developed. 


32  .  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Money. — As  civilization  has  extended,  and  as  society  has  grown  more  com- 
plex, it  has  become  necessary  to  have  some  measure  of  value  common  to  all  nations, 
so  that  there  may  be  an  easy  exchange  of  commodities.  Out  of  this  necessity  has 
arisen  a  universally  accepted  medium  for  the  exchange  of  values  called  money.  In 
nations  where  commerce  is  highly  developed,  written  orders  to  pay,  known  as  bank 
drafts,  are  sufficient,  and  these  orders  are  worth  their  face  value  as  money  in  any 
nation ;  but  among  more  primitive  peoples,  many  articles  that  are  used  for  food, 
clothing,  or  ornament,  serve  as  money.'  It  is  the  desire  of  every  man  to  accumulate 
money,  so  that  in  case  he  has  no  other  article  to  exchange  for  food  or  clothing  he 
can  use  this.  Among  nations,  too,  it  is  the  desire  of  each  to  be  as  far  as  possible 
independent  of  others ;  hence,  a  tariff  is  often  imposed  upon  imported  articles  in 
order  to  promote  home  manufactures,  or  to  raise  money  for  government  use. 

Consuls.  —  To  encourage  international  trade,  each  nation  has  representatives, 
called  consuls,  at  every  city  of  industrial  or  commercial  importance  throughout  the 
world.  These  representatives  devote  their  time  to  furthering  the  best  interests 
of  their  country.  They  endeavor  to  increase  trade,  and  to  prevent  frauds  or  decep- 
tions in  the  sale  or  the  purchase  of  goods.  They  also  make  frequent  reports  to  their 
home  governments  upon  the  progress  or  decline  of  commerce  in  tlie  territory  to 
which  they  are  accredited.  For  the  guidance  of  these  consuls,  the  various  countries 
have  made  treaties  of  commerce  with  one  another.- 

To  carry  on  the  interchange  of  products,  there  must  be  means  of  transportation, 
and  highways  as  well,  over  which  the  products  can  be  carried. 

Transportation.  —  In  a  primitive  state,  man  himself  carried  the  products  of 
his  own  industry  ;  but  as  he  advanced  in  civilization,  and  the  products  of  his  labor 
increased,  he  trained  beasts  to  bear  his  burdens  for  him;  or  if  a  waterway  were  more 
convenient,  he  built  a  boat.^  When  traffic  constantly  passed  back  and  forth  between 
two  points  a  path  was  worn.  In  the  course  of  time  the  paths,  made  more  easy  for 
travel  by  removing  obstructions,  became  roads. 

In  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe  and  America,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  a  few 
other  countries,  the  highways  travelled  by  beasts  of  burden  have  been  made  wide 

1  In  Cliina,  opium  is  as  good  as  money.  In  oUier  parts  of  Asia,  bricks  of  tea  pass  current.  In 
the  early  liistory  of  America,  tobacco  was  used.  Furs  are  now  used  as  money  by  the  Kskinio,  as  are 
cattle  in  many  parts  of  Africa. 

2  By  the  tisage  of  nations,  French  is  the  language  in  which  international  deliberations  have 
been  carried  on;  but  English  is  the  language  of  commerce,  and  for  the  purposes  of  commerce  it  is 
more  e.Ntensively  used  than  any  other. 

3  In  northern  Africa  and  western  Asia,  where  the  coimtry  is  generally  hot  and  sterile,  camels 
are  the  carriers  of  merchandise.  In  caravans  of  one  hmnlred  or  more  they  travel  several  days 
without  either  food  or  water,  each  animal  carrying  from  300  to  800  pounds  about  twenty-live  miles 
daily.  In  mountainous  regions,  donkeys  and  mules,  and  sometimes  horses,  are  used.  Mules  are 
very  sure-footed  pack-animals.  A  horse  or  a  nule  can  carry  about  200  pounds;  a  donkey,  more 
than  half  as  much.  In  India,  the  ox  is  a  common  beast  of  burden,  and  in  the  Himalaya  mouiUains 
the  ninnntain  slioep  or  yak  is  used.  In  Sontli  .\merifa  the  llama  carries  ore  to  the  coast  from 
thi'  mini's  liigh  up  in  Iho  .Vndi's,  and  rclnnis  to  ilicmiurs  laden  with  supiilii's. 


COMMEUCIAL   (njx.nAfllY  33 

and  free  from  obstnietions,  so  as  to  iiennit  the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles,  for  an 
animal  can  draw  much  more  than  it  can  carry  on  its  back.' 

The  greatest  advance  thus  far  made  in  the  means  of  land  transportation  is  found 
in  the  steam  locomotive.-  The  locomotive  and  its  train  of  ears  is  a  greater  advance 
over  the  horse  and  wagon  than  the  horse  and  wagon  are  over  the  pack-train. 
Wheat  is  profitably  shipped  by  rail  and  steamer  from  the  Mississippi  valley  to 
London  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  the  same  valley,  however,  it  can  scarcely  be 
grown  with  profit  at  a  distance  of  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  miles  from  a  railway. 
This  fact  alone  shows  the  great  advantage  of  railways,  and  the  extent  of  the  com- 
mercial revolution  their  introduction  has  brought  about.  A  freight  locomotive  costs 
about  $8,000,  weighs  nearly  fifty  tons,  and  will  draw  2,400  tons  at  a  rate  of  thirty 
miles  or  more  an  hour.  A  railway  with  its  equipments  costs  from  $20,000  to 
$00,000  per  mile.  Some  passenger-trains  make  an  average  of  from  fifty  to  sixty-five 
miles  hourly.  The  first  steam  railway  for  general  purposes  was  between  Stockton 
and  Darlington  (England),  opened  in  1825.  In  the  year  1831,  the  first  passenger- 
train  on  the  American  continent  ran  from  Albany  to  Schenectady  in  the  state  of 
Kew  York ;  and  in  1835  was  opened  the  railway  from  Brussels  to  Malines,  the  first 
on  the  mainland  of  Europe. 

About  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  water ;  and,  as  many  of  the 
great  producing  centres  of  raw  material  are  separated  from  the  great  manufacturing 
centres  by  oceans,  most  of  the  international  traffic  is  dependent  upon  ocean-going 
vessels.  Hence  ocean  traffic  has  demanded  the  same  improved  means  of  transporta- 
tion that  traffic  on  land  has  required.  Steam  has,  therefore,  largely  taken  the  place 
of  the  uncertain  sail;  and  now  every  maritime  nation  has  a  fleet  of  steamships, 
€ach  with  a  capacity  of  from  5,000  to  17,000  tons,^  and  a  speed  of  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  miles  an  hour.*     A  steamer  is  estimated  to  have  three  times  the  carrying 


1  On  a  good,  level  load,  a  horse  can  draw,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  fmir  miles  an  hour,  twenty  to 
thirty  times  as  much  as  it  can  carry  on  its  back,  and  often  a  yoke  of  oxen  will  draw  over  a  rougli 
road  a  load  that  a  span  of  horses  could  scarcely  move.  In  a  few  countries,  where  draught  animals 
are  costly  but  human  labor  cheap,  vehicles,  both  for  merchandise  and  passengers,  are  drawn  by  men. 

-  A  locomotive  for  freight-trains  differs  iu  many  respects  from  one  used  in  drawing  passenger- 
itrains.  For  the  latter,  speed  is  required;  for  the  former,  traction.  The  freight  locomotive,  there- 
fore, is  built  with  from  six  to  twelve  driving-wheels,  thus  increasing  the  friction  upon  the  track. 

3  The  carrying  capacity  of  vessels,  that  is,  the  amount  of  space  available  for  stowing  away  the 
cargo,  is  reckoned  in  tons.  The  adopted  measurement  is  one  hundred  oibic  feet  of  space  to  a  ton. 
This  measurement  does  not  include  the  deck  space,  where  part  of  the  cargo  is  sometimes  carried. 
The  registered  tonnage  is  always  less  than  the  actual  tonnage. 

In  1888  the  total  tonnage  of  the  United  States  merchant  marine  was  over  four  millions,  of 
which  about  one  million  was  in  foreign,  and  three  millions  were  in  coastwise  trade.  Of  sailing- 
vessels,  the  tonnage  was  about  two  and  one  quarie.  millions,  and  of  steam  vessels  not  quite  two 
imillions. 

*  The  ship-building  of  the  United  States  in  1798  was  estimated  at  18,000  tons;  in  1894,  at 
182,000  tons.  The  increase  in  the  size  of  the  vessels  has  been  very  great.  In  1789  a  vessel  of  300 
tons  was  a  large  one.  To-day  some  of  the  great  ocean  steamships  have  a  capacity  of  17.(K10  tons. 
Steamers  of  5,000  Ions  capacity  are  quite  numerous.  Coasting-vessels  of  .W  tons  were  considered 
large  a  centurif  ago.     Now  there  are  many  which  have  a  capacity  of  from  800  to  1,000  tons. 


34  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

power  of  a  sailing-vessel  of  equal  tonnage,  because  it  can  make  an  average  of  three 
voyages  to  every  one  made  by  the  sailing  vessel.  The  principal  countries  of  the 
world,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  total  tonnage  of  both  sailing  and  steam  vessels, 
are  :  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy.  Arranged  in  the  order  of  the  value  of  commerce  they  are  :  Great  Bri-tain, 
the  United  States,  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  The  Netherlands,  Eussia,  and  Austria- 
Hungary.  With  the  exception  of  the  United  States,  all  of  these  countries  are 
European. 

Ocean  traffic,  particularly  in  the  case  of  sailing-vessels,  is  dependent  to 
a  great  extent  on  the  trade-winds  and  the  great  ocean  currents.  The  trade- 
winds  blow  in  a  belt,  varying  from  20°  to  25°  in  width,  both  north  and  south  of 
the  equator  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  there  are 
only  the  southerly  trade-winds.  Trade-winds  blow  uninterruptedly,  but  their  loca- 
tion varies,  being  dependent  on  the  season  of  the  year.  As  they  are  caused  by 
the  heat  of  the  equatorial  regions,  they  move  witli  the  sun  either  away  from  oi' 
towards  the  equator.  (See  p.  25.)  Thus,  in  summer,  north  of  the  equator,  the 
trade-winds  would  be  found  farther  away  from  the  equator  than  they  would  be  in 
winter. 

In  addition  to  the  great  trades,  the  winds  that  are  known  among  sailors  as  the 
"  roaring  forties,"  are  of  value  to  navigation.  These  winds  are  regular,  and  to  make 
the  voyage  to  Australia,  vessels  go  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  return 
by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  having  a  fair  wind  all  the  voyage.  The  corresponding  winds 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  are  very  variable. 

In  the  traffic  between  Europe  and  America  advantage  is  taken  of  the  Gulf 
Stream.  This  stream  flows  from  Florida  Strait  along  the  coast  of  North  America 
as  far  as  the  New  England  states,  then  sweeps  off  across  the  Atlantic  and 
divides,  part  of  it  trending  north  of  Great  Britain  and  the  rest  south  along 
the  coast  of  Spain.  This  is  the  most  important  current  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
In  the  north  Pacific  Ocean  there  is  a  similar  stream  called  the  Japan  Current, 
or  Kuro  Siwo.  It  sweeps  from  the  region  of  Japan  northerly  and  easterly 
along  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  its  drift  reaches  the  west  coast  of  North  America. 
Sailing-vessels  always  depend  upon  these  currents  to  make  quick  passages.  The 
great  bulk  of  ocean  trade  is  carried  on  between  a  few  important  ports,  and  the 
routes  over  which  it  passes  are  very  well  defined  by  the  ocean-currents  and  the  trade- 
winds. 

To  aid  in  carrying  on  ocean  traffic  each  nation  issues  charts  of  all  waters. 
On  these  charts  all  dangers  to  navigation  are  marked,  and  every  sailing-master 
lays  his  course  accordingly.  On  the  coast  of  nearly  every  country  lighthouses 
are  erected  at  dangerous  points,  while  harbor  channels  are  marked  by  beacons 
and  buoys.  The  United  States  maintain  1,295  beacon  lights  and  light  vessels,  1,783 
post  liglits,  and  over  5,300  liuoys  and  fog  signals.  There  are  269  life-saving  stations. 
Since  these  stations  were  establislied  in  1871  they  have  saved  nearly  $140,000,000 
worth  of  .property,  and  rescued  many  people  from  drowning. 


coMMEiu'iM.  i:i:n(:ii.\i<ny  35 

Ocean  Routes. — Fiom  New  York  ami  the  neighboring  ports  of  Boston,  Pliil- 
adelphia,  and  Ualtiinore,  the  main  routes  are:  East  (and  for  sailing-vessels  witli 
the  Gulf  Stream),  to  the  ports  of  Europe;  south,  outside  of  the  Gulf  Stream  to  tlie 
West  Indies  and  Central  America;  southeast,  to  and  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  the  East  Indies ;  and,  with  a  southwesterly  sweep,  to  the  eastern  ports  of  South 
America,  and  around  Cape  Horn  ^  to  the  ports  of  the  western  coast  of  America. 

From  San  Francisco  the  routes  are :  Southeast,  down  the  coast  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama ;  south,  with  a  southeasterly  sweep  around  Cape  Horn ;  southwest,  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  and  to  Australia;  and  west,  to  the  Asiatic  ports.  From  the  com- 
mercial ports  of  Europe  the  routes  are  west  to  North  America,  and  southwest  to 
Central  America,  South  America,  and  Cape  Horn.  Traffic  between  these  ports  and 
Asia  is  mostly  by  way  of  the  Suez  canal  instead  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Before  the  recent  introduction  of  steamships  of  high  speed,  coaling  and  supply 
stations  were  established  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Such  stations  are  very  little 
used  now,  except  as  the  various  governments  of  the  world  retain  them  for  naval 
supply  stations  in  case  of  war.  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  island  of  St.  Helena  was 
the  most  important  of  these  stations  until  the  routes  of  commerce  were  changed  by 
building  the  Suez  canal.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  Hawaiian  islands  filled  a  similar 
position,  and  still  retain  some  of  their  importance  ;  but  the  Nicaragua  canal,  when 
completed,  will  have  the  same  effect  upon  them  that  the  Suez  canal  has  had  on 
the  station  of  St.  Helena.  In  the  centre  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  Midway  Island, 
formerly  an  important  coaling-station,  but  now  abandoned. 

Commerce,  the  parent  of  civilization,  had  its  beginnings  in  the  East.  In  its 
primitive  forms  it  could  scarcely  have  had  better  methods  at  command  than 
those  afforded  by  caravan  and  by  river  routes.  Yet  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  whose 
borders  are  so  largely  peninsular  in  their  conformation,  must  early  have  tempted  to 
maritime  venture  the  hardy  races  settled  upon  its  shores."     And  we  know  that  the 

'  In  thft  Strait  of  Magellan  is  a  "  post-office  "  known  to  all  seamen.  Each  passing  skipper 
places  in  the  box  newspapers  and  letters  for  other  passing  vessels,  and  takes  from  it  mail  and  papers 
for  himself. 

^  Prior  to  the  discoveries  of  the  ocean  route  to  India,  and  of  the  continent  of  America,  the 
principal  commerce  of  the  world  was  confined  to  the  regions  lying  around  about  the  lamllocked 
Mediterranean.  The  countries  bordering  upon  its  waters  were  the  seat  of  the  civilization  of  that 
time,  and  commerce  between  these  countries,  as  well  as  with  the  peoples  of  western  Asia,  was  very 
active.  In  the  middle  ages,  and  as  long  as  this  connuerce  was  carried  on  through  western  Asia,  or 
by  the  Red  Sea,  Italy  had  remarkable  advantages  for  securing  the  chief  share  of  it.  Venice  and 
Genoa  were  by  far  the  most  important  ports  through  which  the  tiaffic  was  carried  on.  Their  ships 
visited  all  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  seas  and  of  western  Europe.  Commerce 
with  the  inland  parts  of  Europe  was  by  way  of  the  Alpine  passes.  The  discovery,  near  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  of  the  sea-way  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  Vasco  da  Gania, 
dealt  a  heavy  blow  to  the  eastern  trade  of  the  Italian  cities,  and  these  liave  ever  since  been  of 
less  importance  to  commerce.  It  is,  however,  to  be  noted  that  Venice  and  Genoa  are  now,  as 
they  were  in  earlier  times,  relatively  the  most  important  commercial  ports  of  Italy.  Other  Italian 
cities  then  centres  of  active  trade,  were  Pisa,  Ancona,  and  Florence.  Some  idea  of  the  commercial 
importance  of  these  cities  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  in  the  fourteenth  century  Venice  had  a 
fleet  of  3,000  merchantmen,  manned  by  25,000  sailors. 

Constantinople  in  the  east,  and  Barcelona  and  Marseilles  in  the  west,  were  Mediterranean 
cities  of  great  commercial  activity  in  the  middle  ages. 


36  COMMERCIAL   CEOGRAPIIY 

Phoenician,  the  Greek,  the  Carthaginian,  and  the  Koman  were,  in  tnrn,  masters  of 
its  extensive  commerce.  The  great  river-systems  of  the  world  have  played,  and 
must  continue  to  play,  a  great  part  in  the  drama  of  civilization.  The  Euphrates, 
the  Tigris,  and  the  Nile  have  been  the  seats  of  empires,  and  were  to  ancient  peoples 
what  the  Mississippi  and  Great  Lake  systems  are  to  the  people  of  our  own  country. 

Inland  Waterways.  —  Transportation  by  water  has  the  advantage  of  being 
cheaper  than  transportation  by  land.  Hence  most  of  the  natural  waterways  of  the 
world  have  been  improved,  and  in  many  countries  canals  have  been  constructed  to 
supplement  the  river-systems.  No  single  commercial  highway  was  ever  built  that 
has  been  more  beneficial  to  trade  than  the  Suez  canal.  It  reduced  the  sailing  dis- 
tance from  England  to  India  from  12,000  to  7,000  miles,  and  opened  the  way  for  an 
immense  steamship  traffic  between  Europe  and  Asia.  This  canal,  connecting  the 
Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea,  was  opened  to  traffic  in  November,  1869.  It  is 
100  miles  long,  and,  with  its  approaches,  cost  about  $100,000,000.  It  is  325  feet 
wide  at  the  top,  75  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  26  feet  deep.  Early  in  1887  it  was 
opened  to  night  navigation  throughout  its  whole  extent  for  vessels  provided  with 
proper  electric  lighting  apparatus.  In  1893  more  than  3,300  vessels  traversed  this 
canal,  nearly  all  of  them  by  night.  The  success  of  this  canal  has  been  so  great  that 
strong  efforts  have  been  made  to  build  one  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Count  de 
Lesseps,  who  built  the  Suez  Canal,  also  began  one  to  connect  Colon  and  Panama,  but 
the  project  was  mismanaged  and  abandoned  after  having  spent  about  $400,000,0(10 
with  comparatively  small  results.  A  new  company  has  since  resumed  the  work,  but 
progress  is  slow. 

England  and  France  have  extensive  and  valuable  canal  systems.  In  May,  1894, 
the  Manchester  ship  canal  connecting  Liverpool  with  Manchester  was  opened  for 
traffic.  The  canal  is  35  miles  long,  26  feet  deep,  and  125  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 
The  Netherlands  is  intersected  by  a  network  of  these  artificial  waterways.  A  ship 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  in  Greece  was  opened  to  traffic  in  1893,  and 
cost  $5,000,000.  A  glance  at  the  Reference  Chart  will  make  plain  the  vast  saving  of 
time  that  this  improvement  must  effect. 

In  1888  American  capitalists  projected  a  canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans  across  the  Central  American  state  of  Nicaragua.  The  latest  survey  gives  a 
total  length  of  189  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific,  of  which  Lake  Nic- 
aragua furnishes  over  70  miles  of  natural  waterway.  The  depth  of  the  canal  will  be 
30  feet ;  in  the  narrowest  place  it  will  have  a  width  of  80  feet ;  the  greatest  width  will 
be  120  feet  at  the  bottom  and  360  feet  at  the  top.  Aid  from  the  government  has 
been  asked,  and  may  be  necessary  for  its  completion.'  Greytown  is  the  terminus  on 
the  east,  and  Brito  on  the  west.     This  route  will  benefit  sailing-vessels  more  than 

1  The  incie:i.se  of  our  interests  in  the  Pacific  since  the  acquisition  of  Hawaii  and  tlie  Pliilippines 
(■mill  i-i '.  -  111.   iinpnitance  of  a  ship  canal  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans,  and  a  coni- 

iiii>. 1   1  ii-iiH  ,  IS  and  otliers  under  the  appointment  of  tlie  President  are  now  (1000),  investiijat- 

in^  ilii    li.,i   rniiii'.     It  is  entirely  probable  that  the  canal  will  eventually  be  coustnicted  by  our 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGnAPIlY  37 

would  a  route  farther  south,  because  it  is  in  the  region  of  the  trade-winds,  and  can 
be  approached  at  all  seasons,  while  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  iii  a  region  where 
calms  are  prevalent  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Lake  Nicaragua  is  elevated  106  feet  above  moan  tide.  The  lake  affords  50 
miles  of  navigation,  and  a  canal  16  miles  long  would  connect  the  lake  with  the 
Pacific,  beginning  at  the  Rio  del  Medio  and  terminating  at  Brito.  The  fir.st  seven 
and  a  half  miles  require  an  excavation  averaging  54  feet  in  depth  and  is  the  most 
expensive  part  of  the  whole  work.  Ten  locks  and  one  tide  lock  are  required  between 
the  lake  and  the  sea.  It  is  estimated  that  the  lake  will  supply  thirty-eiglit  times  as 
much  water  as  will  be  needed  for  the  use  of  the  lockage. 

This  canal  will  connect  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  lines  with  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  save  a  voyage  of  nearly  14,000  miles  around  Cape  Horn. 

It  must  greatly  increase  the  commerce  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts. 

The  Gulf  states  will  reap  as  much  benefit  as  those  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
coal  fields  of  Alabama  can  be  drawn  upon  to  furnish  San  Francisco  and  other  cities 
with  cheaper  fuel  than  can  be  had  elsewhere. 

It  is  probable  too  that  Japan  can  bring  cotton  from  the  Gulf  states  as  cheaply 
as  she  now  gets  her  supply  from  India.  By  the  present  sailing  route.  New  York 
and  Liverpool  are  about  equally  distant  from  San  Francisco.  The  canal  will  bring 
New  York  2,700  miles  nearer  than  Liverpool  to  all  the  American  Pacific  ports,  and 
with  this  important  advantage  our  Eastern  merchants  should  be  able  to  control  most 
of  the  Pacific  coast  commerce. 

The  route  from  New  York  to  Yokohama  is  shortened  some  6,000  miles  by  this 
passage  across  Nicaragua.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  Yokoliama  via  the 
Nicaragua  route  is  2,000  miles  less  than  that  from  Liverpool  to  Yokohama,  by 
the  Suez  Canal.  This  shortened  route  should  give  New  York  a  great  advantage  in 
trading  with  Japan. 

The  canal  systems  of  the  United  States  have  an  aggregate  length  of  about 
4,000  miles.  The  most  important  of  the  canals  are  the  Erie,  St.  Mary's  Falls,  Cham- 
plain,  Earitan,  Delaware  and  Hudson,  Delaware  and  Chesapeake,  Miami,  Wabash, 
and  Ohio.  On  the  north,  the  waterway  which  consists  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
and  the  Great  Lakes,  and  which  connects  the  grain-growing  regions  of  the 
northwest  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  requires  at  several  points  to  be  supplemented 
with  canals.  One  of  these,  between  lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  avoids  the  rapids 
of  St.  Mary's  River ;  the  Welland  canal  connects  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  is 
made  necessary  by  the  rapids  and  falls  of  the  Niagara  River.  There  are  several 
small  canals  in  the  St.  Lawrence  route,  near  Montreal,  also  occasioned  by  the 
necessity  of  avoiding  the  rapids  of  the  river.  It  is  proposed  to  construct  a  canal 
across  Cape  Cod,  in  Massachusetts,  by  which  there  will  be  not  only  a  saving  of 
time  in  transport,  but  an  avoidance  of  the  dangers  of  navigation  around  the 
cape. 

Steamboats  now  ply  on  nearly  all  the  great  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  world. 
Water-  transportation  is   slow   compared  to   that   of    railways,   yet  owing    to    its 


COMMERCIAL   GEoGllAl'lIY  39 

comparative  cheapness  steam  navigation  is  invaluable  to  the  commercial  supremacy 
of  any  country.' 

Highways. —  The  Romans,  in  their  time,  carried  the  art  of  roatl-niaking  to 
great  perfection,  but  the  roads  they  built  were  comparatively  few  in  number,  and 
connected  only  the  more  important  centres.  It  was  not  until  within  about  a  hundred 
years  that  anything  like  the  roadway  with  which  we  are  familiar  was  undertaken. 
Up  to  the  present  century  highways  connecting  even  the  important  towns  of  Great 
Britain,  a  country  presenting  peculiar  advantages  for  the  construction  of  such  works, 
were  very  bad.  The  carriage  road  from  town  to  town,  and  village  to  village,  as  we 
now  know  it,  —  graded,  macadamized,  and  crowned,  —  is  an  improvement  of  very 
recent  times.  The  Roman  roads  were  used  for  military  rather  than  commercial  pur- 
poses. JNlodern  highways  are  built  mainly  for  the  transportation  of  merchandise. 
In  general  the  nations  of  Europe  are  well  supplied  with  good  roads  ;  the  old  Roman 
military  roads  in  Italy  are  exceptionally  good.  In  India  the  government  has  con- 
structed a  road  from  Calcutta  to  the  border  of  Afghanistan.  In  Peru  aiul  other 
South  American  countries,  are  fine  highways  built  by  the  Incas  long  before  the 
voyage  of  Columbus.     Some  of  these  roads  are  still  in  use. 

Tlie  United  States  is  behind  other  great  nations  in  the  quality  of  its  roads.  In 
1800  only  the  larger  cities  were  connected  by  roads,  and  these  were  very  poor.- 

Several  centuries  ago  a  very  great  trade  was  carried  on  by  caravans  whose 
routes,  added  one  to  another,  extended  from  Canton  to  Gibraltar.  Now  most  of  this 
trade  has  sought  other  channels  of  transportation,  and  the  only  important  caravans 
remaining  are  from  Russia  to  China  and  Corea;  from  Damascus  eastward  into 
Persia  and  adjoining  regions ;  from  Damascus  to  Mecca;  from  Morocco  to  Timbuc- 
too;  from  Algiers  and  Tripoli  to  Timbuctoo  ;  from  Tripoli  to  the  Soudan  ;  and  from 
Morocco  to  Mecca. 

The  Railway.  —  The  highroad  of  civilized  nations  of  the  present  day  is  the 
railway.  Railways  were  introduced  at  a  time  when  trade  was  greatly  impeded  for 
lack  of   means  of    transport,  and  have  been  built,  not  only  in  every  commercial 

1  The  steam  engine  was  in  1777  a  useful  power,  but  not  until  Fulton  in  1807  built  the  Clermont 
was  a  successful  steam-vessel  produced.  Fulton  travelling  in  Scotland  in  1803  took  drawings  of  the 
Charlotte  Dundas.  a  steamboat  built  by  Mr.  Symington  to  tow  vessels  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  canal. 
He  brought  one  of  Boulton  and  Watt's  20  horse  power  engines  to  America,  and  built  the  Clermont, 
which  made  the  voyage  of  1 10  miles  in  24  hours  from  New  York  to  Albany. 

In  1811  Henry  Bell  of  Gl.isgow  started  the  Comet  on  the  Clyde,  and  thus  founded  steam  navi- 
gation in  Great  Britain.  In  1815  a  steamer  went  from  Glasgow  to  London.  In  1818  one  made  the 
trip  from  New  York  to  New  Orleans,  and  in  1819  the  Sarannah  crossed  the  Atlantic.  Not  until 
nineteen  or  twenty  years  later  were  regular  lines  established.  On  April  4th,  1838,  the  steamer 
Sirius  sailed  from  Cork,  and  on  the  Sth,  the  Great  Western  sailed  from  Bristol.  Both  ships 
arrived  in  New  York  on  April  23d,  so  that  ocean  steam  navigation  really  dates  from  1838. 

-  In  consequence  of  this,  journeys  by  coach  were  very  slow.  That  from  Philadelphia  to 
Baltimore  consumed  from  three  to  five  days.  The  transportation  of  merchandise  from  Philadelphia 
to  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  cost  over  $200  a  ton,  and  was  effected  by  pack-animals.  At 
the  eve  of  tlie  introduction  of  railways  the  government  built  a  military  road  from  Baltimore,  through 
Wheeling  and  Cincinnati,  to  St.  Louis. 


40  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

country,  but  in  nearly  every  colony  and  petty  nation  in  the  world.  In  18-4G  there 
were  only  3,000  miles  of  railway  in  use  in  the  world  ;  in  1891  there  were  about 
350,000  miles,  nearly  half  of  which  are  in  the  United  States.'  The  cost  of  railways 
in  the  United  States  alone  has  been  $9,000,000,000.  The  value  of  the  railways  of 
the  world  is  estimated  at  over  $28,000,000,000,  or  about  one-tenth  of  the  total  wealth 
of  civilized  nations.- 

Where  traffic  has  demanded  it,  various  railway  companies  have  combined  to 
iperate  continuous  lines  between  distant  commercial  centres  of  importance,  which 
are  called  trunk  lines.  The  more  important  of  these  lines  are  :  In  the  United  States, 
the  half  dozen  or  more  trans-continental  lines  which  connect  the  Mississippi  valley 
with  the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  East  are  the  New  York  Central,  the  Erie,  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and  several  others  which  connect  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board with  the  Mississippi  valley.  Connecting  with  these  lines  are  others  of  great 
importance  —  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and 
Quincy,  the  Missouri-Pacific,  the  Rock  Island,  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and 
others.  These  lines,  witli  their  branches  and  connections,  make  a  net-work  of  rail- 
ways that  connects  all  the  cities  of  importance  throughout  the  country,  affording  an 
outlet  for  the  products  of  every  district. 

In  Canada  is  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  which,  with  its  supplementary  lines, 
connects  Halifax  and  Quebec  with  Vancouver.  This  makes  the  journe}'  between 
Great  Britain  and  China  five  or  six  days  less  than  by  the  sea  route. 

At  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  the  Panama  railway,  47  miles  long,  connecting 
Colon  (or  Aspinwall)  on  the  east  and  Panama  on  the  west.  Colon  is  connected  by 
steamship  with  the  United  States  and  Europe,  while  Panama  is  in  steamship  com- 
munication with  the  chief  ports  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  both  North  and  South 
America. 

The  Tehuantepec  railway,  now  under  construction  in  Mexico,  will  be  a  compet- 
itor of  the  Panama  road,  as  it  will  bring  the  Pacific  Ocean  three  or  four  days 
nearer  to  New  York.  The  completion  of  the  Mexican  Southern  road  will  make  it 
possible  to  go  from  New  York  to  Tehuantepec,  without  change  of  cars,  in  seven  or 
eight  days. 

The  near  completion  of  the  transcontinental  railway  between  Buenos  Ayres  anil 
Valparaiso  will  save  the  dangerous  voyage  arotuul  Cape  Horn,  and  reduce  the  dis- 

1  The  total  mileasjo  of  railways  in  the  United  States  (January,  1899)  was  185,370.  Tlie  largest 
mileage  oiici:ii.  ,1  h\  a  siii.I.  >\>irin  is  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  —  over  9,000  miles.  The 
railways  of  ili.  I  niir.i  sinr  ^  aiind  employment  for  about  a  million  persons.  The  longest  con- 
tinuous lini'  !-  111.  I  aiihliiii  I'ariiir,  .•xtencling  from  Quebec  to  Vancouver,  B.C.,  a  distance  of  more 
than  3,000  iinl.-. 

2  It  is  I  ^liiiiaiid  ihai  all  ihf  money  the  world  possesses  would  purchase  only  one-third  of  the 

railways,  ur.ix h  as  i  la   laii.  i  atv  valued  at  over  §25,000,000,000,  —  or  about  one-tenth  of  the  total 

monetary  wialili  ..1  ruilizi.l  naiinns,  and  over  one-quarter  of  their  invested  capital.  The  railway 
Iiusiiiess  is  one  that  is  increasing  at  an  almost  incredible  rate.  In  1876  the  world's  railways  aggre- 
gali-d  185.000  miles,  while  in  1893  there  were  over  406,000  miles,  thus  showing  an  increase  of  221,000 
miles  in  eighteen  years,  or  an  average  of  12,000  miles  a  year.  When  it  is  considered  that  this  means 
the  laying  each  year  of  enough  track  to  reach  half  around  the  earth,  the  magnitude  of  the  increase 
can  be  better  appreciated.     From  1893  to  1808  the  yearly  average  was  10,000  miles. 


COMMEIICIAL   OEOORAJ'Jiy  41 

tanee  from  the  east  coast  of  tlie  United  States,  and  from  Europe  to  the  west  coast 
of  South  America,  ten  or  fifteen  days.' 

The  greatest  railway  project  now  under  way  is  the  Siberian  Pacific  road,  extend- 
ing across  Eussia  and  Siberia,  a  distance  of  4,000  miles.  This  road  will  n(jt  only 
open  a  vast  area  of  arable  land  to  settlement,  but  it  will  give  a  great  impetus  to 
the  trade  of  interior  and  western  China.^  Another  railway,  the  Trans-Caspian,  built 
by  the  Russian  government,  extends  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the 
border  of  Afghanistan,  and  is  a  growing  trade  route  from  Europe  to  central  Asia.* 

The  Postal  System.  —  With  the  increase  of  commerce  between  nations,  there 
has  been  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  interchange  of  thought  and  courtesies. 
This  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  post-offices  in  every  country.  For  the  more 
rapid  and  safe  communication  between  nations,  an  international  postal  union  has 
been  organized,  so  that  letters  and  small  packages  can  easily  be  sent  from  one 
country  to  another.  Nearly  every  country  is  a  member  of  this  union,  and  it  is  of 
great  benefit  to  commerce.  It  provides  a  cheap  means  of  communication,  and  often- 
times delivers  letters  more  quickly  than  merchandise  is  transported.  It  also  fur- 
nishes means  by  which  important  events  in  voyages  may  be  sent  to  ship  agents. 

'  The  completion  of  the  railway  systems  in  Mexico  and  the  Argentine  Republic  opens  the  way 
for  a  line  to  connect  the  two  systems.  Such  a  railway  does  not  seem  among  the  impossibilities, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  several  sections  of  the  line  are  already  built  or  surveyed,  particularly  in 
Colombia,  Bolivia,  and  Peru.  With  the  building  of  less  than  3,000  miles  additional  it  would  be 
possible  to  go  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres  by  rail.  Such  a  line  would  not  only  develop  the 
mineral  deposits  of  the  Andes,  but  it  would  also  stimulate  a  great  traffic  in  the  agricultural  products 
of  Central  and  Soutli  America. 

2  The  Siberian  railway  begins  at  Samara  on  the  Volga,  thence  to  Zlatousk  in  the  Ural  Mountains, 
whence  it  will  run,  by  way  of  Omsk,  to  Irkutsk  on  Lake  Baikal;  and  from  there,  by  way  of  Srietensk 
on  the  Amoor  river,  to  Vladivostok  on  the  Sea  of  Japan.  This  port,  which  will  be  the  Pacific 
terminus,  is  about  0,000  miles  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  4,000  miles  from  the  starting-point  of  the 
road.  The  country  to  be  traversed  by  this  railway  is  not  unlike  the  Canadian  Northwest.  From 
Omsk  to  Irkutsk,  a  distance  of  1,000  miles,  the  proposed  route  is  dotted  with  villages,  and  the 
country  well  suited  to  grain-growing. 

■^  The  interdependence  of  nations,  and  the  growth  of  commerce,  may  be  shown  by  many  simple 
illustrations,  such,  for  example,  as  would  be  afforded  by  the  items  of  a  course-dinner,  by  the  contents 
of  a  furnislied  house,  by  the  merchandise  exhibited  in  a  grocer's  window,  or  by  the  articles  of  a 
lady's  wardrobe.  Any  of  these  would  make  clear  how  not  only  the  various  sections  of  our  own 
country,  but  many  remote  lands,  are  laid  under  tribute,  and  minister,  through  the  medium  of  com- 
merce, to  our  daily  needs. 

A  lady's  wardrobe,  for  Instance,  might  include:  the  straw  of  her  hat,  braided  in  China, 
exported  from  Hong  Kong,  formed  in  Paris,  coming  to  us  by  way  of  Havre;  the  hat-trimmings  of 
silk  and  velvet,  from  cocoons  of  Italy,  France,  Japan,  or  China,  manufactured  at  Lyons;  the 
ostrich  plumes  from  Capo  Colony;  the  diamonds  of  her  ear-rings  from  Brazil  or  South  Africa,  cut 
at  Amsterdam,  set  perhaps  in  New  York;  the  lace  at  her  neck  made  in  Belgium,  exported  from 
Antwerp;  the  sealskin  sack  from  Alaska,  cured  and  treated  in  London,  and  made  up  at  home; 
the  carael's-hair  shawV  from  northern  India;  the  wrap  of  Persian  lamb's  wool;  in  her  hand  the 
carved  inwrought  fan  from  Yokohama;  gloves  of  dressed  kid  from  Paris;  her  watch,  perhaps,  from 
Switzerland;  her  gowns  of  silk  and  wool  from  many  possible  sources;  her  garments  of  linen  from 
Belfast,  Brussels,  or  Amsterdam;  her  boots  of  kid  from  north  African  skins,  manuf.ictured  perhaps 
in  France,  covered  in  wet  weather  by  over-shoes  of  India-rubber  from  Para,  manufactured  possibly 
in  Connecticut. 


42  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Telegraph.  —  For  the  rapid  interchange  of  thought,  the  telegraph  has 
superseded  the  post-office  in  matters  of  importance.  The  first  telegraph  line,  built 
in  1844,  as  an  experiment,  connected  Washington  and  Baltimore.  It  proved  its 
utility  immediately,  and  now  there  is  not  a  nation  or  a  colony  of  consequence 
that  is  not  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world  by  ocean  cables  or  by  overland 
lines.  After  the  great  usefulness  of  the  telegraph  had  been  demonstrated,  several 
attempts  were  made  to  lay  a  cable  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  but  it  was  not  until 
1858  that  this  was  accomplished.^  The  telegraph  is  used  much  more  in  the  United 
States  than  in  any  other  country.  There  are  over  two  million  miles  of  telegraph 
wires  in  the  world,  about  a  third  of  which  are  in  the  United  States.^  The  telegraph  is 
of  inestimable  value  to  commerce.  Goods  can  be  ordered  from  any  part  of  tlie  world 
in  a  few  hours  by  cable,  and  ship  agents  can  know  where  their  vessels  are,  almost 
as  soon  as  they  drop  anchor. 

As  a  means  of  economy  in  sending  cable  messages,    so-called  cable  "  codes  " ' 

1  There  are  now  several  ocean  cables,  connecting  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
commercial  advantages  of  the  submarine  telegraph  have  been  so  great  that  the  system  has  been 
extended  to  all  parts  of  the  world  —  to  .Japan  and  China;  Suez  and  Singapore;  Java,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  There  have  thu.s  far  been  laid  more  than  150,000  miles 
of  submarine  telegraph  cables,  at  a  cost  of  about  $1,000  a  mile.  There  is  no  direct  trans-I'acific 
line.  A  message  from  San  Francisco  to  Hong  Kong  is  sent  by  way  of  New  York,  Canso,  Penzance, 
Aden,  Bombay,  Madras,  Tenang,  and  Singapore,  —  the  necessary  transfers  and  repetitions  of  which 
could  be  made  in  about  fifteen  minutes. 

The  most  important  telegraphic  invention  of  recent  years  is  that  by  which  four  or  six  messages 
can  be  transmitted  over  one  wire  at  the  same  time,  thus  saving  a  vast  expense  in  the  stretching  and 
maintenance  of  wires. 

2  The  mileage  of  wire  for  telephone  use  in  the  United  States  in  1899  is  estimated  at  772,000, 
connecting  over  a  million  telephones.  Every  important  city  has  a  telephone  exchange,  to  the  central 
office  of  which  all  local  telephone  wires  run;  and  the  "  exchanges  "  of  the  large  cities  are  connected 
one  witli  another,  by  "  long-distance  "  telephone  wires.  This  great  invention  puts  into  close  com- 
munication the  buyer  and  the  seller,  the  office  and  the  factory,  the  agent  and  the  principal,  who 
can  thus  mutually  transact  business  almost  instantly  by  word  of  mouth. 

3  To  illustrate  this  subject,  and  show  how  words  may  be  used  to  represent  sentences, 
a  short  extract  is  here  given  from  a  code  in  common  use  by  one  of  the  large  banking-houses  of 
New  York. 

Arrived  well;  pleasant  trip;  was  not  sick Aberrance 

Arrived  well;  stormy  trip;  was  very  sick .^bettor 

Arrived  well;  stormy  trip;  was  not  sick;  proceed  to-nii)now .\bi5ail 

No  cablegram  received .\bjuror 

Y'our  cablegram  is  unintelligible .\bnegator 

What  is  the  cause  of  delay Abolislicr 

No  information  has  been  received Absorb 

Cannot  leave  in  consequence  of AbslimMit 

Have  you  received  my  letter .Mnisive 

Letter  will  contain  further  particulars .Vbutment 

How  shall  we  direct  your  letters .•\ca<Ma 

Procure  letter  of  credit  and  send  to  me  at .Vocession 

Have  you  received  remittance .\cc<)r<lant 

Cannot  return  until .Vccrue 

When  do  you  expect  to  return .\ci'tate 

Write  without  delay -Vcorn 

Will  write  by  next  mail .Vcouite 


44  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

have  been  devised.  The  object  of  these  is  to  convey  in  a  few  words  as  much  infoi- 
mation  as  possible.  A  great  number  of  cipher  codes  are  in  use,  composed  generally  of 
columns  of  words  or  iigures  answering  to  every  possible  emergency.  Like  the  code 
of  signals  between  ships  at  sea,  ten  words,  symbols,  or  numbers  may,  by  pre-arrange- 
ment,  answer  for  a  message  of  a  hundred  words.  Even  with  these  economies,  the 
principal  cables  are  scarcely  adequate  for  the  transaction  of  the  volume  of  business 
and,  without  them,  the  cost  of  submarine  telegrams  would  be  greatly  enhanced. 


QUESTION'S 


What  is  commerce  ?  How  was  commerce  car- 
ried on  in  man's  primitive  state  ?  What  is  meant 
by  "division  of  labor"?  What  is  money? 
[Ans.  —  Money  is  a  medium  for  the  exchange 
of  values.]  Give  some  account  of  the  duties  of 
consuls.  Contrast  the  pack-horse  with  the  rail- 
way locomotive.  How  does  the  carrying  power 
of  the  ocean  steamer  compare  with  that  of  the 
sailing-vessel  of  equal  tonnage  ?  Name  the  chief 
countries  of  the  world  in  the  order  of  the  impor- 
tance of  their  tonnage,  —  in  the  order  of  the 
value  of  tlieir  commerce.  What  can  you  say  as 
to  tlie  situation  of  these  countries  ?  [Ans.  —  All 
except  the  United  States  are  European  coun- 
tries.] 

Give  an  outline  of  the  nature,  location,  and 
direction  of  the  trade-winds.  What  are  the  main 
routes  of  ocean  commerce  from  points  on  our 
eastern  seaboard?  What  great  coaling-station  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean?  What  effect  had  the  con- 
struction of  the  Suez  canal  upon  the  coaling- 
station  at  St.  Helena? 

What  can  you  say  of  early  Mediterranean  com- 
merce ?  Name  the  advantages  of  an  irregular 
coast-line  and  of  navigable  rivers.  [Ans. — An 
irregular  coast-line  affords  harbors  for  shipping, 
and  facilitates  intercourse  and  commerce  with 
foreign  countries,  while  long  navigable  rivers 
give  great  facilities  for  internal  commerce.]  De- 
scribe  the  Suez  canal.  What  other  canal  was 
uii'liitaken  by  Count  de  Lcsseps  ?  Describe 
tin-  .Miiiicliester  .ship  canal.  Between  what  cities 
does  its  course  lie?  What  are  its  dimensions? 
What  are  the  advantages  of  the  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  ?  What  is  the  Nicaragua 
canal  ?  Wliat  advantages  has  it  over  the  aban- 
doned Panama  canal  ?  What  is  the  aggi-egate 
length  of  the  canal  systems  of  the  United  States  ? 
What  are  the  principal  lines  ?     What  is  the 


length  and  course  of  the  Erie  canal  ?  AVliat  can 
you  say  of  the  St.  Lawrence  canals  ?  Where  is 
the  Welland  canal  ?  What  proposed  canal  in 
New  England  ? 

Who  were  the  first  great  road-builders  ?  For 
what  purpose  were  the  Roman  roads  constructed  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  highways  of  Europe  ?  — 
of  South  America?  — of  the  United  States? 
Name  the  principal  caravan  routes  of  the  pres- 
ent day. 

Give  some  account  of  the  growth  of  the  rail- 
way systems  of  the  world.  What  is  the  esti- 
mated value  of  all  existing  railways  ?  What  are 
"  trunk  lines  "  ?  Name  the  principal  trunk  lines 
of  the  United  States.  Name  several  of  the  more 
important  connecting  lines  of  the  Mississippi 
valley.  Describe  the  Canadian  Pacitic  line. 
The  Panama  line.  The  Tehuantepec  line.  Wliat 
beneficial  results  will  follow  upon  the  completion 
of  the  railway  from  Buenos  .\yres  to  Valparaiso  ? 
What  is  the  most  important  railway  project  of 
the  present  day  ?  Where  and  what  is  the  Trans- 
Caspian  railway  ? 

What  is  the  international  postal  union  ?  What 
is  the  world's  total  mileage  of  telegraph  wires  ? 
What  proportion  of  this  is  within  the  United 
States  ?    What  are  telegraphic  "  codes  "  ? 

What  countries  possess  the  greatest  natural 
advantages  for  commerce  ?  [Ans.  —  The  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Japan,  and  France. 
These  countries  possess  rich  natural  resources, 
favorable  climate,  and  excellent  water  communi- 
cation.] 

What  contrast  in  location  is  generally  afforded 
by  commercial  and  manufacturing  cities  ?  [Ans. 
—  Commercial  cities  require  good  h.arbors  and 
water  communications  to  faciliate  commerce, 
while  manufacturing  cities  depend  mostly  upon 
water-power  to  run  their  machinery.] 


COMMERCIAL   CEOaUAl'HY  45 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE   REPUBLIC   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

Area  and  Position.  —  Exclusive  of  Alaska,  the  Lliiited  States  occupies  the  whole 
breadth  of  North  America  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east  to  the  Pacific  Ocean 
on  the  west,  ami  extends  from  the  Dominion  of  Canada  on  the  north  (the  49th  paral- 
lel of  latitude  forming  much  of  the  boundary),  to  Mexico  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
on  the  south,  or  to  within  100  miles  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  The  area  is  about 
3,000,000  square  miles,  exclusive  of  the  territory  of  Alaska,  which  contains  531,000 
square  miles. 

Physical  Regions  and  Natural  Resources. — Within  its  limits  may  be  found 
every  degree  of  climate,  from  the  rigorous  winters  of  Montana  and  North  Dakota, 
to  the  snb-tropical  heat  of  Florida  and  southern  California. 

Physically,  the  United  States  is  divided  into  the  following  regions:  the 
Atlantic  coast-plain,  the  Appalachian  highlands,  the  Great  Central  2'lo-in,  and 
the  Western  highlands.     The  last  named  division  encloses  the   Great  Interior  basin. 

Along  the  Atlantic  coast,  east  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  is  the  Atlantic 
coast-plain,  a  belt  of  fertile  land  varying  from  50  to  200  miles  in  width.  It  is 
divided  into  small  farms,  on  which  a  great  variety  of  food-products  is  grown.  Here, 
also,  are  many  of  the  great  commercial  and  industrial  centres  of  the  United  States. 

The  Appalachian  highlands  are  rich  in  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas. 
Zinc,  nickel,  salt,  and  gold  are  obtained  in  paying  quantities.  iMarble,  slate,  and 
building-stone  are  extensively  quarried. 

The  Gulf  coast-belt  is  low,  level,  and  very  productive.  Cotton  and  sugar  are 
the  leading  products.  A  large  proportion  of  the  world's  supply  of  cotton  is  grown 
here. 

Between  the  Appalachian  and  the  Rocky  mountains  lies  the  Great  Central  plain, 
which,  drained  mainly  by  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  branches,  forms  the  most 
important  agricultural  region  in  the  world.  The  Mississippi,  with  its  tributaries, 
drains  more  than  half  of  the  area  of  the  United  States,  and  intersects  or  borders  on 
two-thirds  of  the  states  and  territories,  thus  supplying  a  waterway  for  an  extensive 
internal  navigation  aggregating  about  15,000  miles.  The  basin  of  this  river-system 
is  the  greatest  grain  and  meat-producing  region  in  the  world,  and  is  the  source  of 
much  of  the  food  supply  of  Europe  as  well  as  of  the  United  States.' 

'  Although  tlie  n.anie  Mississippi  is  geographically  given  to  the  main  stream  togetlipr  wiili  that 
one  of  its  three  principal  affluents  which  takes  its  rise  in  Minnesota,  yet  above  their  junction  the 


46  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Northeast  of  the  Mississippi  system  is  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  This  river  forms  a  commercial  highway  second  in  importance 
to  the  Mississippi  system.  At  the  extreme  western  end  of  Lake  Superior  is  Du- 
luth,  nearly  2,000  miles  from  the  sea,  yet  by  these  lakes,  and  by  the  Erie  canal, 
Duluth  can  send  grain  or  other  products  to  tide-water  without  a  single  trans- 
shipment. Much  of  the  marvellous  development  of  the  upper  Mississippi  valley 
is  due  to  the  cheap  transportation  afforded  by  these  water-ways.  Were  the  Erie,  or 
the  Ottawa  and  the  Welland  canals  enlarged,  as  is  proposed,  all  trans-shipment 
could  be  avoided.^ 

The  Western  highlands,  and  the  region  known  as  "  The  Plains,"  are  arid.  The 
former  first  became  famous  as  a  rich  mineral  country.  In  both  regions,  grazing  has 
been  introduced,  and  of  late  years,  chiefly  by  the  adoption  of  systems  of  irrigation, 
agriculture  has  been  carried  on  with  success  in  some  parts. 

On  the  Pacific  slope,  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  ^Mountains  and  the  coast,  is  one 
of  the  most  highly  productive  areas  in  the  world.  This  region  is  a  strip  of  land,  from 
one  hundred  to  three  hundred  miles  wide,  extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of 
California.  Irrigation  is  carried  on  more  extensively  and  skillfully  here  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  Vegetables  and  fruits  of  nearly  every  variety  grow  to 
great  perfection. - 


Missouri  river  is  much  more  important  to  commerce  than  is  the  Mississippi.  Regarding  the  Missis- 
sippi system  as  a  whole,  there  are  no  less  than  fifty-seven  branches  which  contribute  their  waters 
to  the  principal  stream.     Of  these,  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  are  by  far  the  more  notable. 

The  Mississippi  is  navigable  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Antliony,  near  whose  great  water-powers  are 
St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  and  on  its  banks  are  Davenport,  St.  Louis,  Cairo,  Memphis,  Vicksburg, 
and  New  Orleans. 

The  Missouri  is  navigable  for  more  than  2,000  miles.  Its  chief  ports  are  Kansas  City, 
St.  Joseph,  Omaha,  and  Jefferson  City. 

The  Oliio  has  its  sources  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  and  among  the 
important  commercial  centres  upon  its  course  are  Pittsburg,  Wheeling,  Cincinnati,  and  Louisville. 
Among  other  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  important  to  commerce,  are  the  Iowa,  Des  Moines, 
Ked,  Wisconsin,  Arkansas,  and  Illinois  rivers. 

'  A  considerable  part  of  the  price  of  all  commodities  is  due  to  the  expense  of  transport.  Other 
things  equal,  the  shorter  the  distance  and  the  less  the  handling  .and  tr.ans-shipnient,  the  lower  the 
pi'ice.  The  great  staples,  such  as  coal,  petroleum,  and  the  cereals,  can  be  brought  from  the  producing 
fields  to  seaboard  market?  without  "  breaking  bulk,"  if  sent  by  rail.  If  for  export,  trans-shipment 
to  the  ocean  steamer  is  necessary.  Grain  for  export  is  now  transferred  directly  from  the  "  canaller  " 
10  the  steamship  by  means  of  great  steam  elevators.  Coal  is  often  trans-shipped  by  the  device  of 
opening  hinged  doors  in  the  floor  of  cars,  thus  dumping  the  coal  into  the  hold  of  the  steamship 
beneath. 

The  extension  of  their  terminal  facilities  in  the  port  of  New  York  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  Lehigh  Valley  and  the  Pennsylvania  railways,  thereby  bringing  their  freight  business  to  deep 
water,  has  effected  great  saving  of  labor,  and  should  lessen  the  cost  of  transportation  by  saving  in 
the  handling  and  lighterage  of  merchandise. 

2  American  raisin  and  wine  interests  are  almost  exclusively  confined  to  California.  The  wine 
produced  in  Ohio  and  New  York  makes  little  figure  in  the  industrial  statistics  of  the  nation.  The 
!».'J0,000  boxes  of  raisins  and  the  20,000,000  gallons  of  wine  produced  in  California,  in  1888,  suggest 
the  possibility  of  the  future,  when  we  consider  that  only  one-lifth  of  the  area  of  that  state  suited  to 
raising  grapes  is  now  covered  with  vmes. 


COMMl-.nciAi:    (lEOCRM'IlY  47 

Population  and  Occupations.  —  TIh'  ixipulutiou  df  tho  rnitecl  States  (1900) 
is  over  7r),0(M>,( )(!().  In  IT'.H)  the  poimhitinii  was  less  than  t,(lOO,000,  and  was  con- 
lined  to  the  region  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  Tlie  centre  of  population  was  then 
near  Baltimore ;  it  is  now  fifty  miles  southwest  of  Indianapolis.  Three-fourths  of 
the  growth  of  population,  apart  from  the  natural  increase,  has  come  from  tlie  British 
Isles  and  Germany. 

Nearly  half  tlie  population  of  the  United  States  is  dependent  upon  tillage  of 
the  soil,  and  about  one-fifth  of  the  agricultural  products  of  the  world  are  grown 
within  the  limits  of  our  country.'  One-fourth  of  our  jjopulation  is  dependent  for 
employment  upon  the  factories  and  mines. 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  tlie  general  situation  of  the  United 
States  ?  What  is  its  area,  exclusive  of  Alaska  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  climate?  What  are 
the  great  physical  regions  ?  Describe  the  Atlan- 
tic coast-plain,  —  the  Appalachian  highlands. 
Give  some  account  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  —  of 
the  Western  highlands.     What  is  the  most  im- 


What  is  the  leading  industry  of  the  Gulf  states  ? 
Give  a  general  description  of  the  (iieat  Lakes 
and  St.  Lawrence  system.  For  what  great  staple 
product  does  this  system  afford  transportation  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  region  west  of  the 
Mississippi  ?  What  is  the  general  nature  of 
the  Pacific  slope  ?    What  are  its  chief  products  ? 


portant  commercial  characteristic  of  the  Atlantic  What  is  the  population  of  the  United  States  ? 

coast-plain?     [Ans.  —  It  contains  most  of  our  What  has  been  its  growth  during  the  present 

great  seaports.]     What  is  noteworthy  in  respect  century  ?    What  proportion  of  the  population  is 

to  the  Appalachian  mountain  system?  [-'I)!*. — It  dependent  upon   agriculture  ?  — upon   factories 

is   the    region    of   valuable    mineral    deposits.]  and  mines  ? 


I. -RAW    PRODUCTS 

Cotton.  —  The  United  States  produces  certain  raw  materials,  such  as  cotton, 
iron,  wheat,  tobacco,  and  copper,  in  greater  quantities  than  any  other  country  in  the 
world;  though  until  recent  years  Great  Britain  held  supremacy  in  the  output  of  iron, 
and  Russia  closely  approaches  in  the  production  of  wheat. 

Of  the  raw  products,  cotton  is  commercially  the  most  valuable.  In  1899  the 
cotton  export  was  nearly  one-fifth  in  value  of  all  exports.  Cotton  grows  in  nearly 
all  countries  where  the  climate  is  sufficiently  warm,  and  from  the  earliest  days  of 
history  it  has  been  woven  into  fabrics.  But  not  until  the  development  of  the 
American  plant  and  the   invention  of  the  cotton-gin  did  cotton  become  of  great 

1  The  United  States  produces  about  one-fourth  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  world.  Until  1849. 
more  than  one-half  our  product  was  confined  to  the  New  England  and  other  Atlantic  states  ; 
43  per  cent,  were  grown  in  the  Middle  states;  and  only  5  per  cent,  in  the  states  and  territories 
west  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver.  Wheat-growing  has  moved  westward  at  the  rate  of  about  nine  miles 
a  year.  In  the  Eivstern  states,  less  than  15  per  cent,  are  oow  grown  ;  in  the  Middle  states  about  40 
per  cent. ;  in  the  Western  states  upwards  of  45  per  cent. 


48  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

commercial  importance.  American  cotton  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other  country. 
]\Iany  attempts  have  been  made  to  ingraft  its  good  qualities  upon  the  cotton-plants 
of  India  and  other  regions,  but  without  success.  Sea-island  cotton  is  raised  on  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  and  is  the  finest  quality 
grown.  This  Sea-island  plant  loses  in  quality  when  transplanted  to  the  mainland. 
The  cotton-producing  states,  in  the  order  of  the  amount  grown,  are:  —  Texas, 
Georgia,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  South  Carolina,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Florida,  and  Oklahoma.  This  order  may  change  in  diffni'iit  yrars.  The 
states  of  Missouri,  Indian  Territory,  Virginia,  and  Kentucky  also  |.r."lu,r  cotton  to 
a  limited  extent.     The  total  value  of  the  cotton  exported  in  IS'.lli  \va>  .^I'.M  .o(k  1,000. 

Cotton-seed  and  its  Oil.  —  The  seed  of  the  cotton-plant  was  fur  many  years 
regarded  as  useless,  and,  to  be  disposed  of,  was  generally  burned.  Later,  it  was 
returned  to  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer.  Then  it  was  ascertained  to  be  nutritious 
food  for  animals,  and  that  it  contained  a  large  proportion  of  oil.  The  cotton-plant 
is  estimated  to  produce  three  hundred  pounds  of  seed  to  one  hundred  pounds  of 
fibre.  A  hundred  pounds  of  seed  averages  a  yield  of  two  gallons  of  oil,  forty-eight 
pounds  of  oil-cake  or  meal,  and  six  pounds  of  refuse,  which  is  an  excellent  material 
for  soap-making.  After  the  oil  is  extracted  the  meal  is  more  valuable  as  a  fertilizer 
and  as  food  for  cattle  than  before.  The  hull  of  the  seed  is  an  excellent  fuel, 
and  the  ash  of  the  hull  is  of  commercial  value  for  the  manufacture  of  potash.  The 
various  products  of  cotton-seed  are  of  comparatively  recent  development,  having 
tirst  come  into  notice  in  ISoi'.^ 

Breadstuff s. — Breadstuff s  raw  and  manufactured  exceed  cotton  in  value  among 
exports,  and  in  1899  formed  slightly  more  than  one-tifthof  the  total  value  of  exports. 

Wheat  and  wheat-flour  form  slightly  more  than  half  of  the  breadstuff  export. 
Wheat  is  raised  in  nearly  every  country  in  the  world,  and  is  the  main  article  of  food 
in  most  civilized  nations.  Only  two  of  the  great  nations  of  Europe,  Russia  and 
Austria-Hungary,  produce  more  wheat  than  the  home  market  demands.  The  United 
States  is  the  greatest  wheat-producing  nation  in  the  world,  and  is  the  main  source  of 
suppljr  to  consuming  nations.  The  states  of  the  Mississippi  system  raise  nearly 
all  the  wheat  exported.  Wheat  is  grown  in  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union ; 
l)ut  the  largest  .sources  of  supply  are: — North  and  South  Dakota,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
;\Iiiniesota,  Ohio,  California,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Oregon,  and 
Wiscinsiu. 

Corn  is  indigenous  to  America.  It  grows  in  nearly  all  parts  of  both  North  and 
South  America,  and  is  a  leading  article  of  diet  in  the  Spanish-American  nations,  and 
in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Ireland.     Corn  and  corn-meal  rank  next  to  wheat  and  wheat- 

1  Cotton-seed  oil  lias  found  many  uses.  When  highly  refined  it  is  the  equal  of  olive  oil,  and 
has  very  generally  superseded  it  in  use.  The  stearine,  or  fatty  part,  of  the  oil  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  compound  called  butterine,  and  also  in  the  aiiulteratiun  of  lard.  Most  of  the  oil,  oil- 
cake, and  oil-meal  of  commerce  comes  from  the  United  Slates.  Tlie  conunercial  value  of  the 
cotton-seed  exports  in  1899  was  over  $16,000,000  for  the  cake  and  meal,  and  more  than  $12,000,000 
for  the  oil,  about  twice  what  it  was  in  1894. 


coMMKHciAL  <;i:()i;i;AP/iy  49 

flour  amoii.i;  hreailstuffs  as  cxiKirts.  I'.esidi's  liciii.','  oxtonsivnly  uspil  for  fond,  and  in 
feeding  cattle  and  other  animals,  corn  is  also  used  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol, 
whiskey,  glucose,  and  starch. 

Corn  is  the  most  extensive  food-crop  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  chief 
sources  of  supply  are  in  the  states  <<[  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  particularly  in 
those  states  that  were  foriuciiy  thr  Lading  wheat-growing  states.  The  bulk  of  the 
crop  comes  from  Iowa,  Illinois.  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Texas,  Kansas,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  Georgia,  Pennsylvania,  and  North  Carolina. 

Oats,  rye,  and  other  grains  are  of  comparatively  small  value  as  exports.  The  total 
value  of  breadstutfs  raw  and  manufactured  exported  in  1S99  was  nearly  $270,000,000.' 

Other  Food  Products.  —  ( )ther  food-products  exported  include  live  animals, 
dressed  meat,  and  dairy  products.  The  animals  and  meat-products  come  chiefly  from 
Texas,  Wyoming,  IMontana,  Colorado,  Iowa,  Indian  Territory,  New  Mexico,  Kansas, 
and  Nebraska.  In  these  states  and  territories  there  are  vast  ranges  where  cattle 
are  raised  for  beef  and  hides. 

The  dairy  products  come  chiefly  from  states  farther  east,  where  dairy -cattle  are 
raised.  New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  IMichigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  are  the  states 
most  noteworthy  for  their  dairy  products. 

One  of  the  recent  inventions  of  science  is  tliat  of  extracting  oil  from  lieef  fat.  Tlie  oil.  wlien 
churned  with  iiiillf,  inaltes  an  artificial  butter  called  oleomargarine.  In  many  of  tlie  large  cities  tlie 
surplus  milli  is  utilized  in  making  this  article.  Its  natural  color  is  like  that  of  lard,  but  the  product 
is  always  colored  so  that  only  a  scientific  test  can  distinguish  it  from  dairy  butter.  A  cheap  grade  of 
cheese  is  made  by  a  similar  method.  There  is  great  demand  for  these  articles,  particularly  among 
the  poorer  classes  of  Europe. 

Mineral  Oil.  —  Mineral  oil,  or  petroleum,  is  produced  in  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  Ohio,  California,  and  West  Virginia.^  Most  of  the  oil  is  transported  to  the 
seaboard  through  pipe-lines  which  extend  from  the  oil-fields  to  the  vicinity  of  New 
York  and  Philadelphia,  where  the  oil  is  refined.^ 

The  annual  export  now  has  a  value  of  nearly  $60,000,000. 

1  The  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1S94  was  more  abundant  and  better  in  quality  than  any 
previous  crop.  More  than  2,000,000,000  of  bushels  were  raised  on  75,000,000  acres  of  land.  The 
crop  was  valued  at  neaily  $700,000,000.  3,000,000  cars  loaded  with  662  bushels  each  would  be 
required  to  move  this  immense  yield  to  the  seaboard. 

2  The  Eastern  oil-region  extends  from  Wellsville,  N.Y.,  across  Pennsylvania  to  Dunkard 
Creek,  West  Virginia,  a  distance  of  204  miles,  and  so  far  as  developed,  the  belt  is  about  ten  miles  in 
width.  The  yield  of  the  oil  fii-lds  to  IX'X,  was  over  550,000.000  barrels.  It  is  estimated  that  tlie 
Ohio  field  might  be  made  to  yield  100,000  barrels  a  day.  This  oil  is  worth  about  one-seventh  as 
much  as  the  Pennsylvania  product,  and  its  utility  in  the  world's  economy  lies  in  the  direction  of  fuel. 
The  California  oil  is  suporior  as  fuel,  but  inferior  in  illuminating  qualities  to  that  of  Pennsylvania. 
Natural  gas  is  the  only  fuel  that  can  compete  with  it  in  clieapness,  but  natural  gas  caimot  be  trans- 
ported much  over  100  miles. 

'  From  the  discovery  of  petroleum  in  18.59  until  1866,  the  oil  was  transported  in  oaken  barrels. 
The  cost  of  transportation  from  TitusviUe  to  New  York,  and  the  return  of  the  barrels,  was  $5.55 
per  barrel.  In  1866,  a  barrel  of  oil  in  New  York  cost  §10.40.  Flat  cars,  upon  which  two  wooden 
tanks  were  built,  were  introduced  in  that  year,  and  the  oil  was  transported  in  bulk.  In  1871  iron 
tanks  superseded  those  of  wood.     On  the  Ohio  and  Alleghany  rivers,  barges  containing  large  tanks 


.50  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Tobacco.  —  Tobacco,  like  corn,  is  indigenous  to  America,  but  is  now  cultivated 
■very  extensively  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  an  important  article  of  commerce, 
.and  has  been  an  export  of  our  country  from  colonial  times.  The  chief  tobacco- 
raising  states  are  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  North 
Carolina.  Tobacco  also  forms  an  important  crop  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut 
river.  The  value  of  the  yearly  crop  of  tobacco  in  the  United  States  is  about 
$40,000,000  ;  about  half  of  the  product  is  exported  in  unmanufactured  condition. 

Tliere  are  8,000  establishments  in  the  United  States  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cliewing 
and  smoking  tobacco  and  cigars,  from  the  domestic  and  imported  article,  and  the  value  of  the 
jnanufactured  products  is  nearly  1130,000,000  yearly. 

Lumber.  —  Nearly  every  state  in  the  Union  has  forest  area,  but  lumbering  to 
.any  considerable  extent  is  limited  to  a  few  states.  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
JPennsylvania,  and  Maine  are  seats  of  the  lumbering  interests  east  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains.  Yellow  pine  is  an  important  forest-product  in  Georgia  and  the  Caro- 
■Jinas.  Half  of  the  forest  area  of  the  country  is  in  the  Southern  states.  The  lumber 
product  of  the  Pacific  slope  comes  mainly  from  Washington  and  Alaska,  although 
■Oregon  and  California  contribute  largely  to  it.  The  forest  area  of  Washington  is 
estimated  to  equal  the  aggregate  area  of  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  IMassachusetts, 
and  Connecticut.  Alaska  has  vast  areas  of  untouched  forest.  Heretofore  the  belt 
of  timber  extending  from  Maine  to  Minnesota  has  furnished  the  greater  part  of 
the  supply  of  white  pine  consumed  in  the  United  States ;  but  so  great  has  been  the 
depletion  of  these  forests  that,  in  many  localities,  comparatively  little  merchantable 
timber  is  now  standing.  Few  attempts  to  restock  the  forests  have  been  made,  and,  in 
most  instances,  after  the  pine  has  been  cleared  from  an  area,  scrub  oak  and  not  pine 
is  the  succeeding  growth.  On  account  of  the  growing  scarcity  of  pine,  other  timber 
and  other  material  that  may  be  utilized  in  its  place  are  now  sought. 

Manufactures  of  Wood. -In  1899  the  export  of  wood  and  wood-manufactures  was 
of  the  value  of  $45,000,000,  tlir  pvinripal  items  of  which  were  :  [1]  boards,  dea^,  and  planks, 
[2]  sawed  timber,  [3]  staves  au,l  h.uain.s.  [4]  logs,  [5]  furniture,  [6]  shooks.  Wood,  however, 
forms  an  important  element  in  Ihr  nunularture  of  articles  so  numerous  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach 
of  classification  under  this  head.  Ag.i.ultuval  implements,  machines,  and  musical  mstruments 
are  such  articles.  A  considerable  part  of  our  exports  to  South  America  is  manufactures  of  wood 
in  this  sense.  The  domestic  consumption  of  the  same  manufactures  is,  of  course,  vastly  more 
important.  A  glance  about  the  class-room,  with  its  chairs,  desks,  benclies,  settees,  and  tables,  or 
a  similar  survey  of  the  furnishing  of  any  house,  will  show  that  manufactures  of  wood  arc  among 
the  prime  necessities  of  civilized  life. 

Iron.— Iron  and  its  various  products  are  rapidly  becoming  leading  exports. 
Deposits  of  iron  ores  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 

were  used  to  carry  the  oil.  The  first  pipe-line  fr..n>  .1,.  ..il-fu  Uls  to  the  ^/^^f  ;;d;;«^^'^°'"f '^"^J" 
1881.  Since  then  mnnerous  other  pipe-lines  liav  1",,,  Innli.  ai  a  wwt  of  ^?15,000,000.  Iho  pipis 
are  carried  along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  i,n,„iHu.-siati,nis  are  established  at  ii.torva  s  of 
about  28  miles.  The  total  length  of  these  pipe-liias  appiuaclu.s  L',000  miles.  The  primnpal  lines 
are  from  Olean,  N.Y.,  to  Bayonne,  N.J.,  and  to  Brooklyn;  and  from  Colegro-^e  Pa. ,  to  Ihiladel- 
phia,  with  a  branch  to  Baltimore.  Another  line  runs  from  near  Olean  to  Bufialo,  and  one  from 
Colegrove  to  Cleveland.  These  lines  reduce  the  cost  of  transportation  to  about  4o  cents  a 
barrel. 


COMMElirlM.    CFJXiltM'IIY  51 

iiiiniiii,'  "f  these  is  carried  on  in  21')  states  and  territories.  The  largest  amount  of  ore 
is  mined  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  embraced  in  the  states  of  Minnesota,  Micliigan, 
and  Wisconsin.  The  southern  iields  in  the  states  of  Alabama,  Tennessee,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Georgia  liold  a  second  place,  but  will  probably  soon  rise  to  first.'  West- 
ern Pennsylvania  is  third,  and  the  Lake  Charaplain  district  in  New  York,  fourth. 

The  smelting  of  iron,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  are  most  extensively 
carried  on  in  western  Pennsylvania,  northern  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Ohio.  In  the 
manufacture  of  steel  the  United  States  is  now  the  leading  nation  in  the  world. 
There  has  been  in  recent  years  a  great  development  of  this  industry  in  Ala- 
bama and  Georgia.^ 

Iron  and  steel  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  innumer.able  articles,  both  of  domestic  trade  and 
export.  Our  export  of  these  manufactures  in  189!)  was  in  value  nearly  $100,000,000,  more  than  three 
times  what  it  was  in  1804.  The  principal  items  in  the  order  of  value  being,  machinery,  agricultural 
implements,  builders'  hardware,  metal-working  machinery,  pipes  and  fittings,  locomotives,  wire, 
sewing-machines,  and  electrical  machinery. 

These  exports  consist  largely  of  manufactures  requiring  the  best  mechanical  skill,  and  many 
of  them  come  from  the  workshops  of  Philadelphia  and  other  portions  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
ability  of  the  iron  manufacturers  of  Pennsylvania  to  compete  successfully  in  the  higher  departments 
of  industrial  production  is  demonstrated  by  the  amount  of  these  exports  which  arc  sold  in  the  open 
of  the  world  in  competition  with  the  best  that  Europe  can  produce. 


leather.  — Within   the    last    quarter   of    a  century   cattle-raising    has   greatly 
increased  in  the  United  States.     The  uses  of  leather  have  not  kept  pace  with  the 


1  In  1899  the  great  demand  and  high  prices  of  pig  iron  increased  the  total  valuation  of  the 
year's  output  to  over  $245,000,000,  a  sum  more  than  double  the  value  of  the  output  in  the  year 

From  1789  to  1842  the  lowest  quotation  per  ton  for  pig-iron  was  $28  in  1803,  and  again  in 
1841;  while  the  highest  was  $5.5  in  1815.  In  1850  the  price  fell  to  S20,  rose  to  $:?S  in  1S.J4,  and 
fell  to  $18.75  in  1801.  Then  came  inflation,  and  the  price  rose  to  .$73.02,  in  1804,  and  did  not  get 
back  to  $20  again  until  1877.  Since  the  beginning  of  1885,  the  price  has  been  almost  constantly 
below  $20.    In  1899  the  price  again  rose  to  $26. 

About  75  miles  southwest  of  St.  Louis  is  a  remarkable  deposit  of  ore  called  Iron  Mountain, 
which  is  about  250  feet  high.  At  the  summit  is  an  enormous  mass  of  solid  ore.  Near  by  is 
another  iron  mountain,  called  Pilot  Knob.  It  is  three  times  as  high  as  Iron  Mountain,  and  the 
diameter  at  the  base  is  one  mile.  It  is  estimated  that  about  one-tenth  of  these  mountains  is  iron 
ore.  Incomplete  surveys  indicate  that  Utah  is  richer  in  iron  than  any  other  section  of  our  country. 
In  Iron  County  alone  there  are  ten  iron  mountains,  estimated  to  contain  130,000,000  tons  of  iron 
ore  of  excellent  quality. 

2  The  tendency  now  is  to  substitute  steel  for  nearly  all  uses  for  which  iron  was  formerly 
employed.  The  old  methods  of  making  steel  were  very  uncertain  and  costly.  Bessemer's  invention 
greatly  reduced  tliis  cost,  but  his  process  requireil  iron  ore  almost  free  from  phosphoius  and  sulphur 
compounils.  The  world's  supply  of  such  ore  outside  the  United  St.ates  is  now  very  limited,  and 
comes  mostly  from  Cuba,  Elba,  and  Spain.  In  this  coimtry  the  Lake  Superior  ore  is  Bessemer 
quality,  and  tliere  is  a  great  deal  of  Bessemer  iron  in  the  South. 

Most  of  the  iron  in  the  world  has  from  one  to  five  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  and  to  utilize  this 
iron  the  so-called  basic  process  of  making  steel  has  been  introduced.  Only  basic  steel  is  now  made 
in  Germany  and  France,  and  the  s.ame  kind  for  the  most  part  is  produced  in  Great  Britain.  For 
many  purposes  this  steel  will  supplant  Bessemer,  as  it  is  equally  serviceable  and  cheaper;  but  it  will 
not  drive  Bessemer  out  of  the  market,  since  there  are  some  uses  for  which  Bessemer  steel  alone  is 
suitable. 


52  COMMERCIAL    GEOCRAPUY 

increase  in  the  demand  for  lieef,  and  leatlier  lias,  in  consequence,  liecome  an  article 
of  considerable  export.  The  raw  hides  come  mainly  from  the  plains  of  the  west, 
where  are  situated  the  great  grazing  areas.  The  leather  is  tanned  principally  in 
those  states  where  forests  of  hemlock  and  oak  that  furnish  tanning  material  are 
most  abundant,  —  namely,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  ]\Iaine,  Michigan,  and  New 
Hampshire.  In  1899  the  export  of  leather  and  of  leather  goods  was  more  than 
$26,000,000  in  value,  the  principal  item  being  stock  for  boots  and  shoes. 

Furs  and  Fur  Skins. — Of  the  fur  skins  exported  from  the  United  States, 
seal  skins  are  the  most  valuable.  Others  are  beaver,  otter,  and  the  pelts  of  similar 
animals,  either  from  Alaska  or  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  west.  The  most 
important  rookeries  of  fur  seals  in  the  world  are  on  the  Prebiloff  Islands  in  Bering 
Sea,  the  output  of  which  is  regulated  by  the  United  States  government.  The 
Bering-Sea  rookeries  furnish  over  three-quarters  of  the  world's  supply  of  seal  skin. 
A  few  skins  come  from  the  region  about  the  Shetland  Islands.  From  the  other  seal 
fisheries  of  the  world,  particularly  those  of  the  north  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  skins 
procured  are  those  of  the  hair  seal,  which  are  caught  solely  for  making  leather. 

Coal.  —  The  United  States  is  now  in  advance  of  Great  Britain  as  a  coal-producing 
nation.'  The  English  coal  is  mainly  bituminous,  or  soft  coal ;  about  one-third  of 
that  produced  in  the  United  States  is  anthracite,  or  hard  coal.  Deposits  of  this 
mineral,  as  in  the  case  of  iron,  exist  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union,  but  the 
amount  produced  comes  mostly  from  a  few  states.  Pennsylvania  supplies  nearly 
all  the  anthracite  coal  of  commerce.  This  state  is  also  by  far  the  largest  producer 
of  bituminous  coal  in  the  Union.  Other  leading  coal-producing  states  are  Illinois, 
West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Alabama,  Indiana,  Maryland,  Iowa,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Kentuckj^, 
Tennessee,  and  Wyoming.  Comparatively  little  coal  is  mined  on  the  Pacific  slope, 
and  that  chiefly  in  Washington. 

Copper.  —  Some  of  the  most  valuable  deposits  of  copper  in  the  world  are 
found    iu    the    United    States.     They   are    in    Michigan,   Montana,   and   Arizona.'^ 

I  The  total  annual  production  of  coal  in  the  world  is  now  estimated  by  high  authority  at  over 
500,000,000  tons.  The  United  States  produces  nearly  200,000,000  ton.s,  and  the  state  of  Pennsyl- 
vania more  than  half  this  quantity.  Little  coal  is  exported  from  the  United  States  except  to 
Canada,  which  took  in  1899  over  4,000,000  tons. 

Recent  authorities  give  the  coMl-iirnduoin?  area  of  (lie  world  at  about  470,000  .square  miles,  of 
which  nearly  200,000  are  in  tin-   I'nitid   St:it.s.  ami  :iii  (.|nnl  area  in  China  and  Japan.     This 

e.stimate  so  far  as  China  is  conr,  nir,l  is  s..iii.\vli:ii  i irriiii:il,  yet  the  area  of  the  coal  fields  of 

China  is  known  to  be  many  times  ilnii  of  all  the  Einoinaii  .■ouniries  combined. 

The  most  extensive  coal-mining  operations  of  our  southern  states  are  carried  on  by  the  Ten- 
nessee Coal,  Iron,  and  Railway  Company,  which  controls  the  mines  of  the  Sequatchee  valley,  whose 
business  centre  is  Tracy  City.  This  company  employs  thousands  of  men,  and  its  total  coal  output 
is  about  8,000  tons  per  day. 

-  Tlu^  output  of  these,  as  well  as  of  most  of  the  Kuroiican  mine.s,  is  regulated  by  the  Sodclf 
dcs  MHniir,  a  French  "trust"  which,  fur  a  number  of  years,  has  controlled  most  of  the  copper 
mines  of  the  world. 


54  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Numerous  other  deposits  of  this  metal  exist,  but  those  named  are  so  extensive  that 
they  practically  regulate  the  price  of  copper  for  the  world.  The  uses  and  applica- 
tions of  copper  have  been  greatly  extended  and  stimulated  by  the  active  development 
of  these  mines.  There  are  also  great  deposits  of  copper  in  Utah,  Colorado,  and 
New  Mexico. 

The  raw  products  of  the  United  States  form  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  export.s  of  the  country. 
Raw  cottdii  and  manufactured  foodstuffs  constitute  about  one-half  of  the  total  exports  in  value. 
Of  our  total  exports  one-half  goes  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  her  colonies  and  more  than  half  of 
all  our  exports  to  European  countries  go  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Nearly  all  the  minerals  of  commerce  are  produced  in  the  United  States.  The 
more  important  in  the  order  of  their  value  are  coal,  iron,  gold,  copper,  petroleum, 
silver,  building-stone,  lead,  and  zinc.  Our  country  leads  all  others  in  the  value 
of  its  mineral  products.  But  some  minerals  are  mined  to  so  small  an  extent,  or 
our  manufactures  of  them  require  such  a  large  supply,  that  importation  is  resorted 
to.  These  are  tin,  iron,  sulphur,  lead,  and  platinum.  The  mineral  products 
exported  are  mostly  petroleum,  copper,  and  quicksilver.^  In  iron,  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  the  United  States  is  the  greatest  producer. 

Fisheries.  —  The  iisheries  of  the  United  States  are  more  valuable  than  those 
of  any  other  nation,  and  give  employment  to  nearly  150,0U0  men.  Massachusetts 
and  Maine  carry  on  nearly  one-half  of  the  general  fisheries,  though  New  York, 
Maryland,  and  California  have  considerable  fishing-fleets.  These  include  both  shore 
and  deep-sea  fisheries.  The  large  fleet  of  vessels  engaged  in  cod-fishing  on  the 
Grand  Banks  east  of  Nova  Scotia  is  chiefly  from  Massachusetts.^  The  salmon 
fisheries  of  Oregon  are  of  great  vahie,  though  in  Alaska  there  are  rajjidly  developing 
the  most  extensive  salmon  fisheries  ever  known.^ 

Massachusetts  vessels  do  most  of  the  whale-fishing  of  the  world,  though 
California  has  recently  engaged  extensively  in  this  industry.  Nearly  all  the  sperm 
oil  of  commerce,  and  most  of  the  whale-bone  and  whale  oil,  is  got  by  steam-whalers 
from  these  two  states.  The  most  valuable  whale  fislieries  are  off  the  northern  and 
western  coasts  of  Alaska. 

The  most  important  and  extensive  oyster-beds  in  the  world  are  in  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  along  the  coast  of  Virginia.*     These  are  natural  beds.     In  several  places' 

1  The  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  United  St-ates  in  1S92  reached  tlie  highest 
mark  it  has  ever  attained.  The  total  value  of  the  non-metallic  products  that  year  was  approxi- 
mately $379,000,000  ;  of  metallic  products  $307,000,000  ;  and  of  unspecified  metallic  products 
$1,000,000,  making  an  aggregate  of  $088,000,000.  The  greatest  previous  output  was  in  1S91,  when 
it  readied  in  round  numbers  $0,57,000,000,  and  fell  away  in  18113  to  $609,000,000.  Either  total  is 
greater  than  the  aggregate  value  of  the  output  from  the  mines  of  all  Europe. 

2  The  United  States  Fish  Commission  has  entered  extensively  into  the  hatching  of  codfish 
eggs,  for  restocking  tlie  coast  of  New  England  with  in-shore  cod.  If  the  Commission  succeed,  cod- 
fish will  eventually  he  more  plentiful  ou  the  coast  of  New  England  than  they  were  years  ago,  and  a 
lost  industry  worlh  millions  of  dollars  will  be  restored. 

8  ImporlanI  li-liiim'-lianks  extend  along  the  coasts  of  Washington  and  Vancouver  Island,  at 
points  easily  accrsMlil.   ii,,in  tlic  jwrts  of  Puget  Sound.     These  banks  swarm  with  halibut  and  cod. 

*  The  oyslc  r  iinln-iiv  i^  Maryland's  greatest  natural  source  of  wealth.  The  beds  cover  about 
120,000  acres,  and  llic  cauh  per  year  is  10,000,000  bushels,  yielding  about  $2,000,000  to  m,{m)  people. 


COMMEIl  CIA  L   GEOGRA  I'lJY 


55 


along  the  coast,  artificial  beds  have  been  planteJ,  particularly  on  the  shores  of  New- 
Jersey,  Long  Island,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  Massachusetts,  aiul  these  are 
now  second  in  value  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay  beds.  Oysters  have  been  planted  on  the 
coast  of  California  with  some  success. 


QUESTIONS 


What  natural  product  of  the  United  States  is 
commercially  the  most  valuable  ?  Which  are 
the  more  important  cotton-growing  states  of  the 
Union  ?  What  uses  is  the  seed  of  the  cotton- 
plant  put  to  ?  What  export  of  the  United  States 
is  second  in  value  to  cotton  ?  What  is  the  prin- 
cipal breadstuff  that  we  export  ?  In  what  states 
is  the  great  bulk  of  wheat  produced  ?  What 
states  are  the  chief  sources  of  our  supply  of 
corn  ?  What  other  food  products  of  the  United 
States  are  important  articles  of  e.xport  ?  What 
is  oleomargarine  ? 

In  what  states  of  the  Union  are  the  great 
petroleum  fields  ?  How  is  the  greater  part 
of  the  petroleum  product  carried  to  the  sea- 
board ?  What  is  the  value  of  our  annual  export 
of  petroleum  ? 

What  are  the  chief  tobacco-raising  states  ? 
What  is  the  estimated  value  of  the  yearly  crop  ? 
What  proportion  of  this  crop  is  exported  in  tm- 
manuf.actureil  condition  ?  What  is  the  value  of 
the  manufactured  products  of  tobacco  of  the 
United  States  ?  [Ans.  —  About  $130,000,000  per 
annum.] 

What  are  tlie  leading  lumber-producing  states  ? 
Where  are  tlie  most  important  pine  forests  ?  In 
what  section  lies  half  our  forest  area  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  the  lumber  regions  of  the  Pacific 
coast  ? 

What  are  the  chief  items  of  export  in  wood  and 
wood  manufactures  ?  W^hat  can  you  say  in  gen- 
eral of  the  ways  in  which  wood  enters  into 
manufacture  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  deposits  of  iron  ores 
in  the  United  States  ?  Where  are  the  largest  of 
these  deposits  '?    What  can  you  say  of  the  south- 


ern iron  fields  ?  What  state  leads  in  the  con- 
version of  iron  into  steel  ?  Wliat  was  the  value 
of  exports  of  iron  and  steel  manufactures  in 
1899  ?  Name  some  of  the  principal  items  of  this 
export. 

Whence  do  we  derive  our  chief  supply  of 
hides?  In  what  states  is  most  of  the  tanning 
industry  carried  on  ?  Wliy  ?  What  is  the  value 
of  our  export  of  leather  ?  —  of  the  manufactures 
of  leather  ?  What  is  our  most  valuable  export 
in  furs  and  fur  skins  ?  Where  are  the  greatest 
seal-fisheries  ? 

Contrast  our  coal  product  with  that  of  Great 
Britain.  What  is  the  source  of  the  anthracite 
coal  supply  ?  Which  state  produces  tlie  largest 
amount  of  bituminous  coal  ?  Where  are  the 
most  important  deposits  of  copper  ore  ? 

Name  the  ten  raw  products  of  the  United 
States  which  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  our 
exportations.  Name  two  staples  that  form  two- 
thirds  of  our  exports  in  value.  Among  foreign 
countries  which  is  our  greatest  customer  ?  To 
what  countries  do  seven-tenths  of  our  exports 
go  ?     [^Ifis.  — To  the  countries  of  Europe.] 

Name  our  most  important  mineral  products. 
Which  two  of  these  are  the  most  valuable  ?  What 
minerals  do  we  import?  Why?  Name  three 
mineral  products  which  we  export. 

What  is  the  estimated  number  of  men  engaged 
in  our  fisheries  ?  Which  two  states  carry  on 
nearly  one-half  of  the  general  fisheries  ?  By 
whom  are  the  cod  fisheries  carried  on  ?  Where 
are  the  salmon  fisheries  ?  Which  two  states 
lead  in  the  whale  fisheries  ?  Where  are  the 
most  valuable  of  these  situated  ?  Where  are 
the  most  important  oyster-beds  in  the  world  ? 


56  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


II- MANUFACTURES 

General  View.  —  Manufacturing  has  developed  marvellously  in  the  United 
States  in  the  past  twenty-live  years.  At  iirst,  only  the  coarser  grades  of  wares  were 
made ;  but  by  the  substitution  of  machinery  for  hand  labor,  a  degree  of  perfection 
has  been  reached  in  many  industries  that  is  not  equalled  in  other  parts  of  the 
world. ^  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  manufacture  of  sewing-machines,  watches,'^ 
clocks,  fire-arms,  and  like  mechanisms,  where  an  interchange  of  parts  is  made  possible 
by  the  exactness  of  machine  work.  The  mechanical  and  inventive  genius  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States  is  particularly  trained  in  and  directed  toward  the 
practical  application  of  new  principles.  Many  of  the  most  remarkable  labor-saving 
machines  in  use  in  the  world  to-day  are  of  American  origin.  Among  these  are  the 
cotton-gin,  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  the  applications  of  electricity  for  pur- 
poses of  illumination  and  power,  sewing-machines,  agricultural  implements,  and 
wood-working  and  shoe-making  machinery. 

Statistical  Outline.  —  The  United  States  does  as  large  a  part  of  the  world's 
manufacturing,  as  it  does  of  the  world's  agriculture.  There  are  320,000  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  employing  4,700,000  hands,  and  having  an  annual  product 
of  the  value  of  nine  thousand  millions  of  dollars.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
manufacturing  of  our  country  is  at  present  done  in  the  states  north  of  the  Potomac 
and  Ohio  rivers,  but  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  and  textile  fabrics  have  been 
recently  developing  extensively,  in  the  South.  The  leading  states  in  manufactures, 
in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are:  1,  New  York ;  2,  Pennsylvania;  3,  Massa- 
chusetts;  4,  Illinois;  5,  Ohio;  and  6,  New  Jersey.  The  working  power"  employed 
in  our  manufactures  is  about  twice  that  of  Great  Britain,  three  times  that  of 
Germany,  and  more  than  three  times  that  of  France. 

Leading  Manufactures  by  States.  — JSI'ew  York  is  the  leading  manufacturing 
state,  as    it    is   the  most   populous,   besides    having    extraordinary   natural    advan- 

1  The  success  obtained  by  iiiecbanical  devices  for  labor-saving  is  well  illustrated  in  the  manu- 
facture of  shoes.  It  is  now  possible  to  cut  shoes  from  the  leather,  and  carry  them  through  the 
successive  stages  of  manufacture  so  as  to  fit  them  for  wear,  in  the  space  of  one  hour. 

^  The  American  watch  is  on  the  whole  a  better,  as  well  as  a  cheaper,  watch  than  any  other, 
and  foreign-made  watches  are  nuich  less  used  to-day  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  than  formerly. 
The  gii:il  ]ni  ril  of  Hie  American  watch  is  its  uniform  excellence.  The  machine  which  makes  any 
portion  ol  ;i  h:iI.  Ii  laiilllessly  can  make  ten  thousand  similar  portions  just  as  faultlessly.  By  means 
of  midninri  i  ir  l.iiiu'.  s,  :iny  deviation  to  the  one  ten-thousandth  part  of  an  inch  can  be  detected  in 
the  mai  liiau.  lliuaaii  hands  cannot  rival  this  exactness.  It  is  the  unfailing,  unerring  accuracy 
of  exquisitely  perfect  machinery  which  gives  uniform  quality  to  the  American  watch.  In  1860  the 
various  American  watch  companies  produced  only  15,000  watches,  but  later  they  have  made  as 
many  as  0,000  and  upward  in  a  .single  day. 

^  When  steam-engines  were  first  introduced,  the  amount  of  work  they  could  do  was  compared 
with  the  amount  of  similar  work  that  had  previously  been  done  by  horses.  Hence  the  expression, 
horse-power.  A  horse-power  is  estimated  as  the  power  required  to  raise  a  weight  of  33,000  pounds 
one  foot  in  one  minute. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY  5T 

tagos  for  its  varied  iiulustrit's.  The  principal  maiiufa(!turos  are,  elotliinj;,  iron-aiul- 
steel  products,  sugar-refining,  tanning-aud-leather  products,  and  malt  Iic(U(irs. 

Pennsylvania  is  the  second  state  in  the  importance  of  manufactures,  and  the 
first  in  irou-and-steel  products. 

Massachusetts  is  the  great  cotton  manufacturing  state.  Boots  and  shoes  are 
also  an  important  product. 

I/linois  possesses  great  iron-and-steel-mills,  but  is  more  particularly  noted  for 
the  products  of  its  meat-packing  establishments. 

Ohio  has  large  iron-and-steel  and  agricultural  machinery  works. 

New  Jersey  is  the  leading  state  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  silk  goods. 
It  is  also  the  seat  of  large  linen,  cotton,  rubber,  and  leather  industries. 

Indiana  has  numerous  wood-working  factories  of  various  kinds,  principally  for 
the  production  of  farm  implements. 

Jf'iseonsi7i's  chief  manufactures  are  metal  wares  and  malt  liquors. 

3Iissouri,  like  Illinois,  is  famous  for  its  meat-packing  establishments.  Other 
important  industries  are  iron-and-steel  manufactures,  and  malt  liquors. 

Michigan  is  the  seat  of  great  wood-working  industries,  the  most  important 
branch  of  which  is  that  of  making  household  furniture. 

Co?mecticHt  is  famous  for  its  metal-working  industries,  which  are  in  great 
variety.     Among  the  leading  products  are  brass  goods,  cutlery,  and  plated  ware. 

Bhode  Island,  though  the  smallest  state,  is  industrially  the  most  important  in 
proportion  to  its  area  and  population.  It  has  many  great  woollen  and  cotton 
factories. 

In  the  southern  states,  a  great  development  of  cotton-spinning  has  taken  place 
in  recent  years.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  spindles  was  from  about  half 
a  million  in  1880,  to  a  million  and  a  quarter  in  1887.  Steamers  from  Charleston, 
Wilmington,  and  Savannah  now  carry  cotton  goods  where  formerly  they  took  only 
raw  cotton;  and  southern  mills  export  cotton  fabrics  in  great  quantity  to  China,  thus 
competing  actively  with  the  mills  of  New  England.  The  average  j^early  increase  of 
the  number  of  spindles  since  1888  in  the  United  States  is  over  300,000. 


QUESTIONS 

What  can  you  say  of  the  development  of  our  in  Great  Britain,  —  iu  Germany,  —  in  France, 

manufactures  ?     Wliat  is  the  number  of  estab-  Wliat  are  the  principal  manufactured  products 

lishments  ?  —  of  factory-hands  employed  ?  What  of  New  York  ?  —  of  Pennsylvania  ?  —  of  Massa- 

is  the  value  of  the  annual  product?    In  what  chusetts?  —  of  Illinois?  —  of  Ohio?  —  of  New 


section  of  the  coimtry  is   the  greater  part  of  Jersey  ?  —  of   Indiana  ?  —  of  Wisconsin  ?  —  of 

the  manufacturing  done?     Name  the  leading  Missouri?  —  of   Michigan?  —  of    Connecticut? 

manufacturing    states    in    the    order   of    their  — of  Rhode    Island?      What  can   you    say  of 

importance.     Contrast  the  working  power  em-  cotton-spinning    and    other    industries    in    the 

ployed  in  our  manufactures  with  that  employed  southern  states  ? 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGnAPHY 


m.-COMIVIERCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Historic  Outline.  —  Long  before  the  British  colonies  in  America  became  the 
United  States,  a  considerable  commerce  was  carried  on  with  the  mother  country. 
Whaling  and  fishing  were  also  pursued  with  great  energy.  The  hardy  people  of 
New  England  made  the  best  of  sailors.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  in  1776, 
the  merchant  fleet  of  the  colonies  was  of  considerable  size.  These  vessels  were  as 
stanch  as  oak  and  honest  labor  could  make  them,  and  at  the  beginning  of  hostilities 
most  of  them  were  converted  into  war  vessels.  Insignificant  as  their  number  was, 
in  comparison  with  the  British  fleet,  the  skill  and  resolution  of  the  crews  made 
up  for  the  lack  of  ships. 

With  the  declaration  of  peace  commerce  increased  rapidly.  The  almost  con- 
tinual wars  which  for  thirty  years  had  devastated  Europe,  had  thrown  much  of  the 
carrying-trade  of  the  world  into  the  hands  of  American  sailors.'  But  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  finally  brought  a  general  peace ;  commerce  revived ;  and  the  various 
nations  of  the  continent  struggled  for  supremacy  in  it. 

The  Americans  proved  themselves  most  skilful  sailors,  and  their  disposition 
for  trade  kept  their  vessels  busy.  Shipbuilders  vied  with  each  other  in  construct- 
ing vessels  of  great  speed,  and  in  1860  the  tonnage  of  the  merchant  marine  of 
the  United  States  was  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain.  Many  clipper  ships 
belonged  to  this  fleet.  They  were  then  the  swiftest  vessels  ever  built,  and  competed 
closely  for  the  honors  which  for  over  a  century  had  been  held  by  the  English. 

The  civil  war  in  America  broke  out  at  the  critical  time  when  steam  was  fast 
superseding  the  sail;  and  while  our  commercial  development  was  interrupted  by 
this  war,  the  trading  nations  of  Europe  were  adding  to  their  merchant  marine  fleets 
of  swift  ocean  steamships. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  energies  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  have  been  devoted  to  developing  the  resources  of  the  countr}',  somewhat  at 
the  expense  of  the  merchant  marine.  European  nations  have  fostered  commerce  by 
discriminating  laws  and  by  judicious  subsidies,  but  our  own  government  has  done 
little  to  encourage  ship-building  or  to  promote  our  trade.  In  1894  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  United  States  was  done  in  American  vessels,  as 
against  three-fourths  of  it  in  the  year  1856.  The  chief  natural  products  of  our 
country  have  now  been  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  a  large  fleet  of  American 
ships  is  needed  to  distribute  them  to  consuming  nations.'-' 

1  In  September,  17S7,  the  ship  Columbia,  in  company  with  the  sloop  Washinriton,  .sailed  from 
the  United  Slates  for  the  northwest  coast  of  America,  and  the  following  year  they  reached  their 
destination.  From  there  the  Columbia  sailed  for  Canton  witli  furs,  made  a  successful  voyage,  and 
returned  to  Boston  in  August,  1788.  These  two  vessels  were  the  first  to  circumnavigate  the  globe 
on  a  trading-voyage.  The  Washington  was  of  only  ninety  tons,  and  was  the  first  sloop  of  any 
nation  sent  on  so  long  a  voyage. 

2  In  1789  the  exports  from  the  United  States  amounted  to  $20,205,000.    In  18SS  the  exports 


COMMERCIAL   OKOGHAI'JIY  59 

Manufactures,  too,  have  reached  a  stage  of  development  where  certain  of  them 
more  than  supply  the  home  demand,  and  new  markets  must  be  sought  in  order  to 
dispose  of  the  annual  surplus.  The  principles  of  true  commercial  economy  require 
that  a  nation  like  the  United  States,  which  is  not  only  the  most  wealthy  on  the 
globe,  but  the  possessor  of  the  largest  possibilities  for  future  greatness,  should  have 
a  merchant  marine  of  a  capacity  in  keei)ing  with  this  greatness.  No  other  country 
is  so  well  situated,  naturally,  to  carry  on  a  large  external  commerce  as  is  the  United 
States.  It  has  a  coast-line  nearly  equal  in  e.\tent  to  that  of  Europe,  and  on  this 
coast  are  some  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world. 

The  facilities  for  internal  commerce,  both  natural  and  artificial,  are  greatly 
superior  to  those  of  Europe.  Besides  the  15,000  miles  of  navigation  furnished  by 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries,  the  Great  Lakes  afford  1,500  miles  of 
navigable  waters.  Along  the  coast  are  numerous  rivers  that  are  navigable  to  a 
limited  extent.  The  government  has  been  lavish  in  its  expenditures  to  remove 
obstructions  in  these  rivers  and  otherwise  improve  them  for  navigation. 

Waterways.  —  The  general  government,  and  the  various  state  governments, 
have  ennouraged  the  building  of  canals.  The  most  important  of  the.se  is  the  Erie 
canal,  which,  with  its  connections,  furnishes  cheap  transportation  to  market  for  the 
products  of  central  and  western  New  York,  and  for  the  grain  and  other  products  of 
the  region  tributary  to  the  Great  Lakes.'  Other  canals  of  importance  are  the 
Champlain,  which  connects  Lake  Champlain  with  the  Hudson  River;  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware  Canal,  connecting  the  head  of  Delaware  Bay  with  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay  ;  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  connecting  the  Delaware  River  with  the 
lower  harbor  of  New  York  ;  the  Miami  Canal,  from  Toledo  on  Lake  Erie  to  Cincin- 
nati; the  Ohio  Canal  and  its  branches,  from  Cleveland  on  Lake  Erie  to  Portsmouth 
on  the  Ohio  River;  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  from  Evansville  on  the  Ohio  River 
across  Indiana,  and  connecting  with  the  Miami  Canal ;  the  St.  Mary's  Falls  Canal, 

were  $683,800,000,  in  1894  §972,861,000,  and- in  1899  tliey  were  $1,27.5,500,000.     The  leading  items 
of  export  for  1789,  as  compared  with  the  same  items  of  1888,  1894,  and  1899,  were  :  — 

1789  1888  1894                    1899 

Flour $4, .591,000  $.50,224,000  $09,271,000      $70,082,000 

Wheat 1,399,000  44,1.52,000  69,407.000        81,447,000 

Corn 1,084,000  18,573,000  .30,211,000        82,728,000 

Tobacco  leaf 4,.349,000  20,045,000  24,085.000        29,985,000 

Rice 1,754.000  25,000  not  reported              46,000 

Cotton 58,000  225,122,000  225,210,000       191,107,000 

'  Constructed  as  a  state  work,  the  Erie  canal  was  a  few  years  a<;o  made  free.  During  the  time 
it  exacted  tolls,  it  not  only  paid  back  to  the  state  its  cost  of  construction  and  all  the  expenses  of  its 
maintenance  and  improvement,  but  a  handsome  interest  on  the  investment  besides.  It  has  as 
feeders  the  Oswego  and  Black  Rivers,  and  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  canals.  The  canal  floats  about 
2,000  boats,  each  with  a  capacity  of  8,000  bushels  of  grain,  or  a  corresponding  bulk  of  other  prod- 
ucts ;  and  tlie  round  trip  between  Buffalo  and  New  York  consumes  about  a  month.  Improvements 
have  been  undertaken  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  canal  .service,  by  increasing  the  length  of 
the  locks  and  deepening  the  canal  throughout,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  railway  has 
become  a  formidable  rival  of  the  canal  in  the  carrying  of  freight,  and  some  canals  that  were  once 
valuable  highways  for  commerce  have  already  been  abandoned. 


60 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRM'IIY 


connecting  lakes  Superior  and  Huron;  and  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  ship-canal 
connecting  Chicago  with  New  Orleans  and  the  Gulf.     (See  p.  38.) 

Commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes  has  been  increased  by  the  building  of  canals,  and 
the  removal  of  obstructions  in  the  waterways  connecting  these  inland  seas.  Lake 
Superior  is  twenty-two  feet  higher  than  Lake  Huron,  and  in  1856  a  lock  canal  was 
constructed  between  these  two  lakes  to  avoid  the  falls  of  the  St.  Mary's  Eiver.  Tin' 
St.  Mary's  Falls  canal  was  originally  twelve  feet  deep.  In  1881  extensive  iuiprove- 
ments  were  made,  and  the  depth  increased  to  seventeen  feet. 

But  the  demands  of  increasing  commerce  were  so  great  that  the  government  lias 
constructed  a  new  canal  of  greater  depth  and  capacity.  More  commerce  in  tonnage 
passes  through  this  waterway  than  through  the  Suez  canal,  —  the  number  of  ves.sels 
in  1899  being  20,255,  carrying  49,000  passengers  and  freight  to  the  value  of  over 
$230,000,000.  It  is  now  possible  for  vessels  of  moderate  draught  to  make  the 
voyage  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  ocean,  a  distance  of  2000  miles,  by  way  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  the  Canadian  canals,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 

Railways. — The  United  States  is  pre-eminent  among  nations,  not  only  in  its 
natural  and  artiiicial  waterways,  but  also  in  its  railways.  The  railway  mileage  of 
the  United  States  is  greater  than  that  of  Europe.  Railways  have  been  built  for 
commercial  rather  than  military  ends.  Many  trunk  lines  were  extended  into  new 
and  unsettled  regions,  in  which  towns  and  cities  sprang  up  with  great  rapidity  ;  and 
new  states  were  soon  formed. 

The  railway  mileage  of  the  whole  country  is  about  200,000  miles,  employing 
37,000  locomotives,  and  a  million  and  a  quarter  freight  cars.  In  1898  the  railroads 
carried  more  than  half  a  billion  passengers,  moved  912,000,000  tons  of  freight,  and 
employed  an  army  of  875,000  men. 

Street  railways  have  been  greatly  extended,  and  by  the  application  of  electric 
power  are  rapidly  making  even  the  country  districts  of  the  more  thickly  settled  states 


Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  steady  tendency  in  all  kinds  of  business  to  drift 
to  the  large  cities,  and  in  all  countries  the  large  cities  are  growing  at  the  expense 
of  the  small  towns  and  villages.  As  it  is  in  local  industries,  so  it  is  in  commerce. 
Ports  that  formerly  carried  on  commerce  with  all  parts  of  the  globe  have  dwindled 
into  insignificance  by  the  rapidly  increasing  prosperity  of  others  more  favorably 
situated.  Nantucket,  Salem,  Fairhaven,  and  Newport  conducted  most  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  country  a  century  ago.  Now  the  trade  that  they  formerly  held  goes 
either  to  New  York  or  to  Boston,  and  the  commerce  of  these  once  flourishing  ports 
is  limited  to  a  few  small  schooners  engaged  in  the  coasting-trade. 


QUESTIONS 


What  can  you  say  of  the  coniimn-ce  of  the 
Aiuferioan  colonies  before  the  RevohUionary 
war  ?  —  of  its  subsequent  growth  ?  How  did 
the  American  merchant  marine  compare  witli  tlie 


Britisli  ill    Isi'iO?     What  wfiv   the   roa.sons  for 
its  decline  ':'     How  sliciuld  it  a^ain  be  built  up  ? 

AVhat  are  tlie  two  great  waterways  for  internal 
navigation   in   the  United  States?     Name  the 


<  iiMMi:i;i'i.\L  (iijKin.M'iiY                                  61 

principal  navigable  rivers  of  New  KiigUiiid,  —  What  are  the  modern  tendencies  of  industrial 
of  the  lower  Atlantic  coast,  —  of  the  (Jiilf  a.tivitics  and  of  population  ?  [/Ihs.  — To  con- 
slates, —of  the  I'acific  slope.  What  is  thr  .■.hIimH'  in  c\\\r<:]  What  ;irc  some  of  the  rc- 
niost  important  Amfrican  canal?     Nan.r  ntln  ,  mUk  nf  il,,>  ■     N;,„„.  .  i„„    \,  u-  Kngland  ports, 

important  canals.     What  .ship  canal  is  prM|..,M'^l       ,.iir, ,„  ivi;ill\  iinimi  i:hii,  l.iit  now  relatively 

to  connect  the  Great  Lakes  witli  the  <;iili  .^  iuiiiiii»iri:iiii,      Drsnil.c   ih.'   railway  system  of 

Mexico?     Describe  the  St.  Mary's  Falls  canal.  .    tlic  United  States. 


Growth  of  Industries  and  Commerce.  —  The  growth  of  the  United  States  during 
the  past  humlrcd  years  has  been  more  remarkable  than  that  of  any  other  nation 
in  tlic  worhl's  history.  At  the  time  of  tlie  organization  of  the  colonies  under  one 
government,  the  total  population  was  less  than  four  millions.  From  its  foundation 
each  colony  had  been  independent  of  the  other,  and  relied  for  manufactured  goods  on 
England.  The  New  England  colonies  had  turned  their  attention  mostly  to  marine 
commerce  and  to  iishing.^ 

The  Middle  Atlantic  colonies  had  some  commerce,  but  the  industries  were  chietly 
connected  with  grain  and  dairy  fartns,  while  in  the  Southern  colonies  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  sugar-growing  were  the  main  occupations.  There  was  but  little  change  in  these 
conditions  until  after  the  second  war  with  England  in  1812,  when  the  government 
gave  great  encouragement  to  manufactures.  The  New  England  jieople  had  acquired 
wealth  by  their  commercial  ventures,  and  now  entered  upon  manufacturing  as  ener- 
getically as  they  had  pursued  commerce.  Nearly  every  mountain  stream  with  suffi- 
cient flow  of  water  to  turn  a  water-wheel  was  called  into  requisition,  until  now 
scarcely  a  one  horse-power  of  water-fall  remains  undeveloped ;  even  large  rivers 
were  dammed  to  obtain  ])ower  for  the  multitude  of  factories.^  Thus  Holyoke  was 
built  on  the  Connecticut  River,  Lowell  and  Manchester  on  the  Jlerrimac,  and 
Lewiston  on  the  Androscoggin. 

iln  1789  the  United  States  showed  imports  of  •?23, 000,000,  and  exports  of  §20,000,000,  wliich 
is  less  than  the  present  montlily  commerce  of  the  port  of  New  York  alone.  The  tonniige  entering 
the  seaports  of  the  United  States  for  1789-90  was  761,700  ;  for  1898-99  it  was  22,000,000. 

The  following  is  a  coin]iarison  of  the  merchant  marine  of  the  United  Stales  on  Dec.  31,  1789, 
and  on  June  30,  1899,  in  tons,  divided  according  to  employment :  — 

YEAR  FORKKiN  COASTWISE  FISHERIES 

1789  124,000  09,000  9,000 

1899  837,229  3,90.5,313  01,690 

-  "The  industries,  which  the  first  act  of  our  first  administration  sought  to  encourage,  now  give 
remunerative  employment  to  more  people  than  inliabited  the  republic  at  the  beginning  of  Washing- 
ton's presidency.  The  i^iaml  tiiinl  ,,f  il-.ir  aniiuul  ouiimi,  .if  livi'  tli..us:iii(l  niillinns  of  .hilhus  in 
value,  places  the  United  Si, m^  liixi  :iiii,.ii^  thi-  uLiiiulai-iiiriiii:-  c.Miiiiri.'s  ui  ilic  rjiili,  (iiic-li:ili' iln' 
total  mileage  of  all  the  iM;!i-.nl-.  ,iii-l  ..i,c-i|u;iriri- ..|  all  ilir  ii'lr-r;i]ili  Inn  s  nf  ih,.  \\,,rM  wiilniioiir 
borders,  testify  to  thr  \..;iMi.r,  vanny  aud  valiu-  of  an  ini.mil  r.,ii,iuLTCL-  that  niakrs  Uirse 
states,  it  need  lir.  indi  |h  ihlrm  and  >,lf-supporting.  Tlnsr  liinidiv,!  \,ai-s  of  development  un<ler 
favoring  political  i-oiidiiidiH  lia\r  Inounht  the  .sum  of  our  nni m al  wraith  to  a  figure  wliieli  has 
passed  the  results  of  a  thi'usaiid  vrars  for  the  mother-land  lirr,~rlf.  oihrrwise  the  richest  of  modern 
empires.  The  impetuous  progress  of  tlie  North,  and  the  recent  marvellous  industrial  development 
of  the  South,  have  stimulated  production  until  our  annual  surplus  nearly  equals  that  of  England, 
France,  and  Germany  combined.    The  teeming  millions  of  Asia  till  the  patient  soil,  and  work  the 


62  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPUY 

More  recently  the  developmeut  of  natural  gas  in  Ohio  and  Indiana  has  given 
cheap  fuel  and  built  up  large  manufacturing  interests.  The  transfer  of  water  power 
by  means  of  the  electric  current  is  making  Niagara  and  other  high  falls  of  large 
volume,  centres  of  manufacturing,  the  power  being  transmitted  to  continually  increas- 
ing distances.  The  city  of  Buffalo  is  lighted  by  electric  current  generated  at  Niagara, 
and  Spokane,  Washington,  by  the  falls  of  the  river  on  which  it  is  situated. 

The  overcrowded  population  of  Europe  was  tempted  by  the  opportunities  to 
make  homes  in  the  New  World,  and  in  1820  over  8000  of  them  immigrated.  Those 
who  had  been  employed  in  factories  at  home  found  employment  in  similar  factories 
here;  but  the  majority  were  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  these  new-comers  pushed  the 
lines  of  civilization  westward  in  their  search  for  homes.  Between  1820  and  1899 
over  twenty  millions  of  people,  representing  nearly  every  nation  on  the  earth,  found 
homes  in  the  United  States.'  With  such  a  rapid  growth  of  population,  industries 
of  all  kinds  multiplied,  not  only  throvighout  the  New  England  states,  but  in  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  and  these  eleven  states  now  do 
nearly  half  the  manufacturing  of  the  country. 

By  the  introduction  of  railways  the  farming  communities  of  the  West  were 
brought  into  direct  communication  with  the  seacoast,  and  the  product  of  the  wheat- 
fields  sought  market  in  the  great  cities  of  Europe.  The  energy  with  which  railway- 
building  was  conducted,  opened  new  regions  of  rich  farming-lands  that  soon  became 
settled.-  The  discovery  of  coal  and  iron  in  Pennsylvania  gave  an  impetus  to  manu- 
facturing, which  increased  in  even  greater  ratio  than  the  demand  for  manufactured 
goods,  until  now  these  are  being  exported  where  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  similar 
goods  were  almost  entirely  imported. 

In  a  new  country  there  are  innumerable  directions  in  which  energy  and  enter- 
prise can  exert  themselves.  Agriculture  pays  the  largest  profit  at  first,  owing  to  the 
cheapness  of  land ;  but  after  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  is  gone,  and  artificial 
fertilization  is  necessary,  the  profits  are  less.  Then  come  greater  attention  to  small 
crops,  and  the  beginnings  of  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  every-day  use.  Grain- 
growing  pushes  outward  where  the  newer  lands  are ;  and,  as  agriculture  grows  less 

shuttle  and  loom,  as  their  fathers  have  done  for  ages ;  modern  Europe  has  felt  the  inflnciu-o  and 
received  the  benefit  of  the  incalculable  multiplication  of  force  by  inventive  genius  since  tlic  Nap  .- 
Iconic  wars.  Yet  only  209  years  after  the  little  band  of  pilgrims  landed  on  Plymouth  ISock.  our 
people,  numbering  less  than  niic-iiiinulh  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe,  do  one-third  of  its  mining, 

one-fourth  of  its  manulanmiiii:. -lifth  of  its  agriculture,  and  own  one-sixth  of  Its  wealth."  — 

\_From  an  Address  by  cii'i II,, r,  ,1  M.  /hpim.'] 

iDuring  the  yeai-  i  n.lin^  .Inn.  :',ii.  1899,  .311,715  immigrants  arrived  in  the  United  States. 
Of  these,  242,573,  or  iirail\  sii  |.i  i  .  .-nt.,  entered  at  the  port  of  New  York.  There  have  been 
great  changes  in  the  propo,  lini  ..i  imnii-rants  from  the  different  European  nations.  Formerly,  more 
came  from  the  west  and  lualU  ul  lOurope,  but  now  from  the  .south  and  east.  In  1899,  45,181,  or 
le.ss  than  l.'i  per  cent.,  came  from  Great  Britain,  Italy  sent  77,419,  or  nearly  25  per  cent.,  Austria- 
Hungary  02,491,  and  Russia  60,982,  or  each  about  20  per  cent.,  Germany  17,476,  Sweden  12,797, 
all  other  countries  34,427. 

2  During  the  year  1899  the  government  disposed  of  9,090,623  acres  of  the  public  domain  under 
the  homestead,  pre-emption,  and  forest  laws.  In  the  ten  years  ending  1899,  122,000,000  acres  were 
located  for  settlement. 


coMMimrtAL  <:i:i>(u:.\i'iiy  G3 

])rotitalil.',  luanufactiin'  fdllows  slowly  in  its  waUc  In  tlie  longest  sottlcd  states 
a^irii-ulluro  is  limited  mainly  to  vegetables  that  require  earefid  attention.  The 
quality  of  manufactured  goods  improves,  however,  as  the  skill  of  the  operatives 
increases.  Tlius  agricultural  implements  are  made  to  greater  advantage  in  the  West 
than  in  the  East;  but  watches,  slcain-eiiginrs.  and  carefully  adjusted  electrical  and 
other  appliances  are  most  e\li  nsiii  ly  inaimlaitured  in  the  East  where  the  more 
skilled  mechanics  are.  Coarse  intlun  cloth  can  be  made  cheaper  in  Augusta,  Atlanta, 
and  other  centres  near  the  cotton  fields,  than  in  New  Bedford,  Fall  River,  or  Lowell ; 
and  even  in  tlie  liner  grades  of  manufacture  the  skill  of  the  operatives  in  Georgia 
is  becoming  equal  to  that  of  the  operatives  of  Massachusetts. 

The  several  sections  of  the  United  States  are  now  assuming  distinctive  commer- 
cial characteristics.  The  northeastern  states  are  the  oldest  and  most  thickly  settled. 
Their  chief  commercial  products  are  therefore  the  better  grades  of  manufactured 
goods. 

Industries  Sectionally  Considered.  —  The  southeastern  states  are  thinly  inhabited, 
having  large  areas  of  farmiug-hnul  only  partly  developed.  Hence,  these  states  pro- 
duce mainly  raw  nuiterials,  and  the  rougher  sort  of  manufactures,  such  as  coarse 
cotton  cloth,  pig-iron,  and  lumber.  In  the  central  or  Mississippi  region  food-prod- 
ucts are  cultivated  in  the  states  lying  to  the  west,  while  in  the  eastern  section  more 
manufacturing  is  carried  on.  In  general,  the  Pacific  slope  is  still  a  great  producer  of 
raw  materials,  minerals,  lumber,  and  food-products ;  but  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  longest  settled  region,  there  are  extensive  manufactures. 

The  commercial  spirit  of  the  people  iii  the  northern  states  of  the  country  has  led 
to  a  more  complete  development  of  the  resources  of  these  states  than  has  been 
attempted  in  the  South.  Since  1880  Northern  capital  has  been  turned  southward, 
and  the  most  rapid  industrial  movement  in  any  part  of  the  country  has  followed  in 
the  development  of  coal  and  iron  and  cotton  mills.  From  1880  to  1899,  the  wages 
paid  to  mill  oi^eratives  in  the  South  increased  4(10  per  cent.,  the  number  of  cotton 
spindles  750  per  cent.,  the  amount  of  iron  produced  over  GOO  per  cent.,  the  coal  mined 
650  per  cent.  Nor  are  these  advances  iu  the  coarser  products  alone.  The  South 
now  is  ambitious  to  produce  the  finer  qualities  of  steel.  Having  succeeded  iu  the 
coarser  grades  of  cotton,  she  is  striving  to  make  the  finer  varieties  also.  And  in 
utilizing  their  abundant  natural  resources,  the  people  of  the  South  seem  to  be  only  at 
the  beginning  of  their  industrial  growth. 

The  demand  for  energy  and  capital  within  our  own  borders  has  been  so  great 
that  there  has  been  no  necessity  to  seek  outside  markets.  In  this  respect  the  con- 
trast between  the  United  States  and  many  of  the  European  countries  has  been  very 
marked,  as  the  heavy  American  investments  of  English,  German,  and  French  syndi- 
cates show.  Since  18G0  our  exports  and  imports  have  greatly  increased.  The  expan- 
sion of  trade,  moreover,  has  taken  place  in  nearly  every  direction,  but  the  exports  are 
now  much  greater  than  the  imports.  Now,  as  always  heretofore,  the  largest  export 
is  of  agricultural  products  and  raw  materials ;  but  manufactures,  especially  of  iron 
and  steel,  of  machinery  and  cotton  goods,  have  shown  great  advances.     American 


G4  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

steel  and  iron  bridges  have  been  sold  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  in  competition  with 
British  and  German  manufacturers.  American  bicycles,  clocks,  watches,  type- 
writers, and  sewing  machines  are  popular  everywhere.  American  locomotives  are 
running  on  English,  German,  French,  Russian,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  railways,  and 
the  electric  railways  of  foreign  cities  have  been  largely  equipped  by  American  elec- 
trical engineers.  The  largest  relative  advances  of  American  exports  have  been  with 
China,  which  takes  an  ever-increasing  amount  of  cotton  goods ;  with  South  Africa, 
which  imports  flour  and  machinery ;  and  with  Mexico.  The  progress  of  trade  with 
the  other  republics  to  the  south  has  been  relatively  small.' 

Parallel  with  this  commercial  success,  increasing  foreign  competition  is  not 
wanting  in  jnost  classes  of  goods  which  we  export.  Russia,  Roumania,  Austria- 
Hungary,  India,  and  other  countries  are  exporting  wheat  in  increasing  quantities. 
They  cannot  compete  with  us  closely  enough  to  drive  American  wheat  from  the 
market,  but  they  reduce  the  profits  of  wheat-growing.  The  Argentine  Republic  and 
other  South  American  countries  compete  with  us  in  meat  and  animal  products. 
Egypt  and  India  raise  increasing  quantities  of  cotton.  Russian  petroleum  now  vies 
in  some  markets  with  the  Pennsylvania  product,  and,  owing  to  its  abundance,  gives 
promise  of  being  a  keen  competitor. 

Our  Exports  and  Imports.  —  The  United  States  stands  first  among  nations  in  the 
value  of  its  exports,  Groat  Britain  being  second,  Germany  third,  and  France  fourth. 
The  value  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States  during  1899  was  $1,203,931,000;  of 
the  imports  of  the  same  year,  $616,049,000.  But  in  spite  of  this  recent  Ameri- 
can preponderance  of  exports.  Great  Britain  is  still  the  leader  of  the  world's  trade, 
exports  and  imports  being  both  considered;  followed  by  Germany,  France,  and  the 
United  States. 

In  the  order  of  value  the  bulk  of  the  Import  trade  of  the  United  States 
is   carried  on  with  Great  Britain  and   her  possessions,  Germany,  France,   Brazil, 

iThe  history  of  efforts  to  increase  commercial  relations  with  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese- 
American  countries  goes  back  to  182-5,  when  efforts  were  made  which  resulted  in  the  meeting  of  an 
International  Congress  at  Panama  in  1826. 

Owing  to  the  death  of  several  delegates,  and  especially  to  political  complications  among  the 
countries  of  South  America,  this  congress  was  barren  of  practical  outcome.  It  adjourned  to  meet 
later  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  but  its  session.s  were  never  resuincd. 

In  the  wiiitrr  of  1  ss'.i^-Ol"),  n  siToiid  IntPvnntiniiMl  Aiiipriciin  r.iiv.'ross  mot  in  Washington,  com- 

pi)Sf..l    ..r    ;irriv:lilrd    ,lrl,-alrs    fl' :ill     111,'     IT,  .111  .li(  ■,    ol    llir     Wr, Irili     (  '.  H  ll  i  I  in  ll .     '  MaUy    UUltUally 

A  prrinaiH'iil  liailc^  cxi.nsii  inn,  wii  h  rsprfial  rrlri-ni.-,.  i ..  [.in  i  in-  A  iiii-i'ir:iii  manufacturers  in 
touch  witli  consumers  iu  other  countries  lias  been  establishud  iu  riiiladelphia ;  and  the  Pan-Ameri- 
can Exposition  held  in  Buffalo  iu  1900  was  particularly  intended  to  promote  the  commercial  rehi- 
tions  of  the  Anioricas. 

Aiii.iicaii  DMo.ls  raniL.t  lie  snlil  in  Sniiili  Amcri.-a    in   r iM-liiion  wiili   Kun.]!!-,  all  miIi.t  Ihin-s 

being  cinal.  whIimmi  al  l.^a-i  as  iiinrli  aiiniiiMi,  i,i  ih.'  .Inail,  ..|  ihr  l,ii<iiirs.s  a-  l-aiiM]MMii^  aiv  in 
the  habil  of  i;i\iim.  A  Mil,si,l\  is  |,.rniiian  asMslanrr  \,.  laniiiair  ,'niiiiiirivr.  lAri)  .Minin.  irial 
nation  but  i>ui-  uvvu  assists  its  uciau  stfaiiit-is  ;  and  (.■.>ipfrii'iiri-  has  iaui;lil  that  this  is  iIil-  suivsl  way 
to  establish  lines  of  foreign  trade.  American  steamships  will  never  be  fairly  paid  lor  transporting 
the  mails  until  their  compensation  is  reckoned  by  the  length  of  the  voyage,  instead  of  by  the 
number  of  letters  carried. 


KEW  YORK  ClTl 

APPROACHES 


COM  mi:  IK  lA  L  (:i:nt;i!.\  i-ii  r 


65 


The  Netherlmids,  Japan,  Cuba,  Italy,  Mexico,  Cliiiia,  Switzerlaiul,  Belgium,  and 
Austria^Hungary. 

In  the  order  of  value  the  bulk  of  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States  is  caFried 
on  with  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  The  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Mexico,  Italy,' 
Japan,  Cuba,  Denmark,  China,  and  Brazil. 

One-half  of  our  exports  go  to  the  rnitrd  Kini^'dom  and  her  colonies.  More 
than  half  of  all  exports  to  Europe  go  to  the  United  Kingdom.  To  the  British  po.s- 
sessions  in  North  America  alone  we  export  to  an  amount  larger  than  the  sum  of  our 
exports  to  non-British  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  and  the  West  Indies. 


QUESTIONS 


Give  a  general  account  of  the  growth  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  development  of  its 
natural  resource.s.  Mention  an  important  early 
industry  of  XevV  England.  Inwiiat  iliivciiim  ;ne 
New  England's  energies  andwcallli  imw  imui  d  :' 
AVhat  can  you  say  of  immigraiinn  ,uii,i(l,  r.-,| 
by  nationality  ?  Contrast  the  indu.stiie.s  uf  Uie 
western  part  of  our  country  with  tliose  of  the 
eastern  part.  Why  does  agriculture  predomi- 
nate in  the  one,  and  manufacture  in  the  other  ? 
What  section  of  our  country  has,  in  very 
recent  years,  made  great  advances  in  the  direc- 
tion of  manufactures  ?  To  the  development  of 
what    two    raw  products    are    these    advances 


mainly  due  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  growth 
of  our  foreign  trade  ?  What  of  our  trade  with 
the  countries  of  South  America  and  Asia  ? 

What  is  the  relative  i...siii..n  ..f  iln'  United 
States  among  the  countrii  ,,  ..i  iln  wniM  in  respect 
to  the  value  of  its  tonimi  .mhiiiii  ivc  ■.'  Name 
the  first  four  commercial  i  ounuii.s  ol  the  world 
in  the  order  of  their  importance.  About  what 
is  the  value  of  our  annual  exports  ?  —  of  our 
imports  ?  Name,  in  the  order  of  value,  the 
eight  countries  from  which  our  imports  are 
mainly  derived.  Name  those  to  which  our  ex- 
ports are  mainly  sent.  What  class  of  products 
constitutes  nine-tenths  of  our  exports  ? 


IV.  — SEVEN   PRINCIPAL  SEAPORTS 

New  York  City  is  the  great  commercial  centre  of  the  United  States,  and  ranks 
among  the  half-dozen  leading  cities  of  the  world,  both  in  population  and  in  wealth 
and  enterprise.  Its  geographical  position  and  its  fine  harbor  combine  to  make  it  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  Western  Continent.  In  amount  of  commerce,  it  is 
surpassed  only  by  London  and  Liverpool.  ISIanhattan  Island,  on  which  it  is  mainly 
situated,  is  long  and  narrow,  and  projects  into  a  deep  bay.  This  bay  and  the  adjoin- 
ing waters  furnish  nearly  one  hundred  square  miles  of  anchorage  ground ;  while  the 
shores  of  the  island  have  twenty-five  miles  of  water-front,  all  of  which  furnishes  good 
wharfage  area.     The  adjacent  shores  supply  as  mucli  more. 

'  In  1809  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States  w;is  classified  as  follow.s :  — 

Agricultural  products .§784, 089,000 

Maimfactures 338,675,000 

Products  of  the  forest 42,126,000 

Minerals  and  mineral  oils 28.832,000 

Products  of  the  ftsheries 6.025,000 

Miscellaneous 0. 281.000 

.Sl,2(l.!.!i:)1.000 

More  than  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  exports  were  aj;riiniltural  products  and  manufactures. 


66  COMMEllCIAL    GEodRAPUY 

The  building  of  the  Erie  canal  and  its  branches  brought  New  York  into  direct 
and  cheap  communication  with  the  great  producing  country  of  the  lake  regions ;  and, 
with  the  rapid  development  of  agricultural  interests  in  those  regions,  the  commerce 
of  the  city  increased.  The  subsequent  introduction  of  railways  supplemented  the 
canal  system,  and  poured  a  still  greater  amount  of  food-products  into  the  city  to  be 
exported.  Thus,  New  York  gradually  and  steadily  absorbed  the  bulk  of  our  foreign 
commerce,  both  of  exports  and  imports.  Direct  communication  is  now  held  with  all 
the  large  commercial  centres  of  the  world  by  steamships  and  by  sailing-vessels.  New 
York  City  alone  has  nearly  half  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country.  Four  trunk 
lines  of  railway  connect  the  city  with  the  great  producing  regions  and  commercial 
centres  of  the  West. 

These  lines  are  the  New  York  Central,  the  New  York,  Lake  Erie,  and  Western, 
the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio.  They  bring  the  food  and  other 
products  of  the  West  to  New  York  for  export,  and,  in  return,  distribute  tliroughout 
the  West  the  manufactures  of  the  Atlantic  states,  and  the  wares  imported.  Even  the 
cotton  of  the  South  seeks  New  York;  and  eight  per  cent,  of  the  amount  exported 
passed  through  this  port  in  1899. 

New  York  is  the  centre  from  which  most  of  the  great  financial  transactions  of 
the  country  emanate,  and  as  a  money-market  it  is  second  to  London  only.  The  manu- 
facturing interests  in  and  around  tlie  city  are  much  greater  than  in  any  equal  area  of 
the  country.  The  more  important  industries  are:  the  making  of  clothing,  shoes, 
cigarettes  and  cigars,  sugar-refining,  printing  and  book-biuding,  brewing,  leather- 
working,  and  iron-  and  steel-working.  Some  of  the  best  ships  built  in  the  country 
are  launched  here. 

Politically  and  commercially  a  part  of  New  York,  on  the  western  end  of  Long 
Island,  is  Brooklyn.  The  two  cities  are  connected  by  the  finest  suspension  bridge  in 
the  world.  A  second  bridge  is  building,  and  tunnels  are  planned  to  connect  the  two 
boroughs.  The  manufacturing  interests  of  Brooklyn  are  very  great,  but  it  is  also  a 
city  of  homes.  It  has  a  great  extent  of  wharfage,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  commerce  of  the  port  of  New  York. 

Jersey  City,  opposite  New  York  on  the  west,  is  also  a  suburb  of  industries  and 
homes.  Its  water-front  is  extensive;  and  as  numerous  western  railways  terminate 
at  its  piers,  a  considerable  direct  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on.  Within  a  radius 
of  twenty  miles  of  the  city  of  New  York  is  a  population  of  about  4,000,000,  all 
dependent  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  upon  the  city. 

Boston,  the  capital  of  ^Massaclmsclts,  is  the  sn-diid  American  seaport  in  com- 
mercial iiiiportance.  About  ri-lii  per  cfiit.  of  ilir  rduimerce  of  the  country  passes 
through  this  port.  Much  of  I  he  fxpcirt  and  iuipdit  trade  of  New  England  is  carried 
on  through  Boston,  and  it  also  receives  for  export  a  large  amount  of  food-products 
from  the  West.  These  products  reach  Boston  largely  vid  the  Boston  and  Albany, 
Fitchburg,  and  Boston  and  Maine  railways. 

The  harbor  of  Boston  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  country,  but  its  anchorage  area 
is  little  more  tlian  half  as  great  as  that  of  New  York.     Up  to   the  time   of  the 


COM  mi:  lie  I. \r.  cEocnAi'iiY  6T 

Imililins  of  the  Kii(>  n\v.\\,  r.ustcm  was  the  most  inipi.rtiuit  i.ort,  of  tho  pouiiti-v. 
]iut  the  opuiiiug  ol'  that  t'aiial  gave  to  Now  York  a  hirge  truttie  that  Lustou  uuuhl 
not  reach,  though  the  railways  have  now  restored  some  of  its  trade.  The  Boston 
and  Albany  and  Fitchburg  railways  connect  Boston  with  the  trunk  lines  of  the- 
West,  the  New  Haven  with  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  New  York,  the  Boston 
and  Maine  with  Canada  and  Northern  and  Eastern  New  England.  No  other  part 
of  the  country  does  as  m\ich  manufacturing  as  New  England;  and  Boston  is  the 
city  \ipon  which  nearly  all  these  industries  depend,  both  for  Ixiuking  facilities  and 
a  market. 

liostoii  is  a  >;vi'at  financial  centre.  Much  of  the  money  necessary  to  build  up  the 
West  rLLiiie  tidiii  that  city.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  educational  centres  of  the  country 
in  languages,  professions,  arts,  and  music.  The  industries  of  Boston  are  chiefly  the- 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  clothing,  iron  and  steel  goods,  printing  and  book- 
binding, brewing,  and  sugar-refining.  It  is  the  first  leather  market  and  the  second 
wool'  market  of  the  United  States. 

Baltimore  has  a  commerce  somewhat  larger  than  tliat  of  I'hiladelphia.  Its 
exports  are  nuich  greater  than  those  of  the  latter  city.  In  exports  IJaltimore  ranks 
third.  New  \''ork  being  first,  Boston  second,  and  New  Orleans  fourth.  Its  imports 
are  but  a  fraction  of  the  exports,  and  much  less,  in  value  than  those  of  New  Orleans. 
The  city  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles 
from  the  Atlantic.  It  owes  much  of  its  growth,  however,  to  favorable  railway  con- 
nections with  the  West  rather  than  to  its  maritime  position.  The  harbor  is  naturally 
a  fine  one,  but  it  has  not  the  depth  and  capacity  found  at  other  leading  ports. 

Baltimore  is  the  greatest  oyster-market  in  the  world;  and  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant industries  of  the  city  is  that  of  gathering,  canning,  and  shipping  oysters  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  city  is  also  a  considerable  tobacco-market.  Among  the 
leading  industries  are  iron-  and  steel-working,  and  brick-making. 

Philadelphia  is  fourth  among  the  seaports  of  the  country.  The  city  is  situated 
on  the  Delaware  Iviver,  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  depth  of 
the  river  at  low  tide  is  sufficient  to  admit  large  ocean  steamships.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  century,  Philadelphia,  with  Boston,  possessed  most  of  the  ocean  commerce  of 
the  country;  but  since  the  introduction  of  railways,  and  the  development  of  the 
resources  of  the  West,  other  ports  have  grown  into  importance  at  the  expense  of  both, 
but  particularly  of  I'hiladelphia.  The  principal  exports  are,  food-products,  coal, 
cotton,  iron  and  steel,  woollen  goods,  and  petroleum.  The  petroleum  export  of  the 
United  States  is  mostly  from  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 

The  proximity  of  coal  and  iron  mines  largely  accounts  for  the  great  industrial 
development  of  Philadelphia  and  its  vicinity,  where  manufacturing  interests  greatly 
exceed  shipping  interests  in  value.  Iron-  and  steel-working  is  very  extensively  fol- 
lowed, but  it  is  for  its  woollen  industries  that  the  city  is  especially  noted.  It  is  the 
greatest  carpet-manufacturing  centre  in  the  world;  and  in  making  velvet,  Brussels. 
and  other  fine  grades  of  carpets,  the  city  is  not  excelled.  Woollen  cloth,  worsted, 
yarn,  and  other  wool  materials  are  also  extensively  manufactured.     The  manufacture 


68  COMMERCIAL    flEnnnAPIIY 

of  pressed  and  ornamental  bricks  and  terra-eotta  ware  is  a  great  industry,  and  one 
for  wliicli  Philadelphia  is  famous.  Among  otlier  leading  manufactures  are  tiiose  of 
drugs  and  chemicals,  sugar,  hats,  and  cotton  goods. 

Philadelphia's  population  is  a  million  and  a  half.  The  city  is  well  provided 
with  railway  facilities,  and  its  prosperity  has  been  largely  due  to  a  system  of  canals 
which  connect  it  with  the  coal  and  iron  regions,  and  with  New  York  and  Baltimore. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Philadeljihia,  along  the  shores  of  the  Delaware  River,  are  the 
largest  and  most  important  ship-building  yards  in  the  United  States.  Among  the 
vessels  built  in  these  yards  are  swift  steamships  plying  between  New  York  and 
England,  and  San  Francisco  and  Australia.  The  vessels  for  the  new  navy  of  the 
United  States,  constructed  here,  have  no  superiors  in  the  navies  of  other  nations. 

New  Orleans  is  advantageously  situated  on  the  Mississippi  Eiver,  one  hundred 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Before  the  introduction  of  railways.  New  Orleans  gave  every 
evidence  of  becoming  the  greatest  commercial  city  of  the  continent,  as,  by  the 
Mississippi  Eiver  and  its  branches,  it  was  the  natural  outlet  through  which  the  food- 
products  of  the  states  lying  along  the  shores  of  the  vast  Mississippi  Eiver  system 
sought  the  markets  of  Europe.  But  the  development  of  navigation  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  the  building  of  railways  to  connect  the  Northwest  with  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  diverted  much  of  this  traffic  eastward. 

The  channel  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver,  difficult  to  navigate,  and 
frequently  changing  by  the  deposit  of  silt  from  the  river,  was  another  hinderance 
to  the  development  of  New  Orleans.  This  has  been  deepened  to  thirty  feet  by  means 
of  jetties,  so  that  ocean  vessels  of  greatest  draught  may  now  reach  the  city.  These 
improvements  have  greatly  increased  the  commercial  importance  of  the  port.  About 
a  third  of  the  cotton  crop  and  nearly  all  of  the  cotton-seed  oil  are  shipped  from 
New  Orleans.  An  important  commerce  is  being  developed  between  New  Orleans 
and  Mexico  and  Central  America.  By  the  completion  of  the  Nicaragua  interoeeanic 
canal,  the  commerce  of  the  port  will  be  greatly  increased.  The  railway  connections 
of  the  city  have  been  improved  during  recent  years,  and  have  done  much  to  aid 
its  commercial  development. 

Most  of  the  sugar-cane  raised  in  the  United  States  is  grown  in  Louisiana,  and 
the  raw  sugar  is  sent  to  market  through  the  port  of  New  Orleans.  Eice,  another 
leading  crop,  finds  its  way  to  market  by  the  same  means,  and  it  exports  much  corn 
and  wheat,  brought  by  the  railways  from  the  North  and  West. 

The  situation  of  the  city  is  such  that  its  commercial  interests  are  naturally 
more  important  than  its  manufactures ;  but  in  recent  years  the  latter  have  assumed 
great  and  increasing  consequence.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  in  New 
Orleans  2000  factories  of  various  kinds,  the  leading  products  of  which  are  tin- 
ware, clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  manufactures  of  wood,  and  railway  cars. 

Galveston  is  now  the  sixth  seaport  of  the  Union  in  the  total  amount  of  its 
commerce.  It  is  the  chief  shipping  point  for  Texan  products,  and  although  its 
harbor  is  not  naturally  good,,  yet  Galveston  is  the  leading  port  in  the  amount 
of  cotton  shipped,  and  has  an  important  trade  in  wool  and  hides. 


ccnrMEKCiM  f/KormAi'/iy 


69 


San  Francisco  is  the  seventli  seajioi-t  in  t'ommercial  iiiiijortaiice  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  destined  to  become  a  groat  comniercial  centre.  San  Francisco  and 
San  Pablo  bays,  on  which  the  city  is  situated,  form  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  tlie 
world,  and  furnish  anchorage  area  several  times  greater  than  that  of  New  York 
harbor.  The  harbor  and  the  Golden  Gate  (the  strait  connecting  it  with  the  ocean) 
admit  vessels  of  the  greatest  draught  regardless  of  tides.  Most  of  the  foreign 
commerce  of  the  Pacific  slope  passes  through  San  Francisco.  Exports  and  imports 
more  nearly  balance  each  other  than  in  any  other  of  the  great  ports  except  New 
York.  The  amount  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  exported  varies  from  year  to  year 
with  the  demands  of  the  foreign  trade  and  the  yield  of  the  California  season. 
Fruits,  lumber,  wine,  and  meat  products  are  other  exports.'  Nearly  all  the  quick- 
silver exported  goes  through  this  port.  Lines  of  steamships  connect  the  city  with 
New  York,  the  Pacific  coast  ports  of  South  America,  Yokohama,  Honolulu,  Auck- 
land, and  Australia.  San  Francisco  is  the  great  distributing  centre  of  the  coast, 
and  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  slope  pay  tribute  to  it.  It  is  connected  by  steamship 
lines  with  all  the  important  coast  to^vns,  and  by  rail  with  the  more  important 
places  of  the  interior.  The  building  of  transcontinental  railways  has  greatly 
increased  travel  and  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards.  Much  of 
the  coal  used  in  California  is  imported  from  Washington,  British  Columbia,  and 
Australia.  But  in  spite  of  the  high  cost  of  fuel,  manufactures  are  extensive, 
especially  those  of  furniture,  leather  goods,  clothing,  cigars,  iron  and  steel,  and 
refined  sugar.  Considerable  fishing  is  carried  on  from  this  port,  and,  with  New 
Bedford  and  Provincetown,  Mass.,  it  does  most  of  the  whaling  of  the  world. 

The  completion  of  the  Nicaragua  canal  will  be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  commerce 
of  San  Francisco :  closer  communication  with  New  Orleans  and  New  York  being  a 
necessary  result  of  the  construction  of  that  work. 

These  seven  ports.  New  York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans, 
Galveston,  and  San  Francisco,  do  about  ninety  per  cent,  of  our  importing  and  eighty 
per  cent,  of  our  exporting ;  that  is,  eighty-four  per  cent,  of  our  total  foreign  commerce. 
The  remaining  sixteen  per  cent,  is  divided  among  a  large  number  of  minor  ports,. 
Seattle  and  Tacoma  having  the  largest  share,  and  others  being  well  known  in  par- 
ticular kinds  of  trade  or  manufacture. 


QUESTIOJ^S 


Give  a  general  account  of  tlie  situation,  size, 
and  comniercial  impurlance  of  New  York  City. 
What  cau.ses  have  made  it  the  metropolis  of 
America?  What  great  trunk  lines  of  railway 
connect  it  with  the  West  ?  What  are  its  most 
important  industries?  What  cities  situated  on 
the  harbor  of  New  York  form  with  the  me- 
tropolis the  "Port"  of  New  York?  [Ans.~ 
Brooklyn  and  Jersey  City.]     What  is  the  com- 


bined population   of  the  three  cities  ?   [^Ans.  — 
nearly  three  millions.] 

Locate  and  describe  the  chief  city  of  New 
England.  What  can  you  say  of  the  commerce 
of  Boston  ?  Wliat  lines  of  railway  have  Bos- 
ton for  their  eastern  terminus  ?  What  can  you 
say  of  the  importance  of  Boston  in  banking, 
trade,  and  education  ?  Wliat  are  the  principal 
local  industries  ? 


'  American  occupation  of  the  Philippines  and   large   railway  concessions  to   Americans 
a  must  srreatlv  increase  the  trans-Parifin  t.rarlp  of  San  Fr.incisst^n  nnil  nihpr  nnrt«  nf  thn  ^^n>^t 


China  must  greatly  increase  the  trans-Pacific  trade  of  San  F 


and  other  parts  of  the  coast. 


70 


COMMEnCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


What  natural  advantages  for  commerce  has 
New  Orleans  ?    How  have  these  been  improved  ? 

With  what  countries  is  New  Orleans  Ijuilding 
up  trade  ?  AVhat  would  be  the  effect  of  the 
Nicaragua  canal  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
city  ? 

How  do  the  exports  of  New  Orleans  compare 
with  its  imports  ?  What  are  the  principal  local 
manufactures  ?  Name  the  leading  items  of 
export. 

Describe  Galveston,  its  rank  and  trade. 

Describe  the  situation  of  San  Francisco. 
What    are    its   chief  exports  ?      What  are  the 


sources  of  thff-coal  supply  of  Califoniia  ?    What 

are  the  leading  manufaotiires  of  San  Francisco  ? 
Li.fMt..  :iim1  a.srrilir  niila.l.lplii;,.  What  are 
itsc-hiri  .■xjn.rK;'  Wli;.i  li:i^  c.ii^r.l  ihc  extraor- 
dinary i|r\,hi|,ii,,ni  iif  lis  iii;niiii:irnir,.s  :'  Name 
the  priiiuip.il  itL-uis  of  Uiusu.  Wli.it,  ciui  you  say 
of  its  ship-building '?  What  is  the  commercial 
rank  of  Baltimoi'e  as  compared  with  other  lead- 
ing seaports  ?  Describe  the  oyster  industry  of 
Baltimore.  What  are  the  leading  local  indus- 
tries ?  What  proportion  of  our  export  and  im- 
port trade  is  carried  on  by  the  seven  great  cities 
considered  in  this  chapter  ? 


v.- MINOR  COAST  CITIES 

In  Maine  :—  Eastport,  the  easternmost  town  of  the  United  States,  carries  on  a  small  traffic 
with  the  province  of  New  Brunswick.  Considerable  fishing  is  done,  and  the  seat  of  the  sardine 
catching  and  canning  of  the  United  States  is  in  this  and  other  towns  near  by.  The  towns  on  the 
Penobscot  and  Kennebec  rivers  are  devoted  chiefly  to  ice-cutting  in  winter,  and  logging  and  wood- 
w^orking  in  summer.  Bath,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  has  long  been  famous  for  the  building 
of  wooden  ships,  and  also  builds  many  fine  steel  vessels.  Portland  sends  out  a  fine  fleet  of  cod  and 
mackerel  fishing  vessels.  A  limited  traffic,  chiefly  in  the  products  of  the  wood  working  shops,  is 
carried  on  with  the  countries  of  South  America.  During  the  winter,  owing  to  the  closing  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  by  ice,  much  of  the  commerce  of  Canada  is  carried  on  through  Portland,  as  this  port 

In  Massachusetts  :  — ^;/')H(.-(N/(/'  is  thu  chk-i  lishing  port  of  the  United  States.  It  has  a 
great  fleul  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  cud,  mackerel,  halibut,  and  other  sea-fisheries.  Provinretoirn 
and  other  towns  on  Cape  Cod  are  also  engaged  extensively  in  the  fisheries.  Next  to  New  Bedford, 
Provincetown  is  the  greatest  sperm  whaling  port  in  the  world.  Many  of  the  best  shipmasters 
of  the  merchant  marine  of  the  United  States  were  born  and  bred  on  Cape  Cod.  For  the  past 
fifty  years  N'eio  Bedford  has  done  half  the  world's  whaling,  and  most  of  the  world's  supjily  of 
whalebone,  whale  oil,  and  sperm  oil  comes  from  this  port.  A  number  of  the  finest  ships  in  the 
merchant  service  of  the  United  States  hail  from  this  harbor.  Since  the  decline  of  whaling,  which 
is  chiefly  owing  to  the  production  of  petroleum,  cotton  iiKiiiufartniv  has  been  extensively  entered 
upon,  and  New  Bedford  now  ranks  high  among  the  cdt  in  iiiaiiiifniiiiing  cities  of  the  country. 
In  this  city  are  the  Wamsutta  Mills,  one  of  the  largest  CMitou-iiianulaituring  establishments  in  the 
world.  Fall  Biver  carries  on  a  coast  trade  in  cotton,  coal,  and  other  merchandise,  as  well  as  an 
important  passenger  traffic  between  New  Voile  and  liiston.  But  it  is  chiefly  known  as  the  greatest 
cotton  manufacturing  centre  of  the  Tniinl  Siai.-.  A  few  nnles  above  Fall  River  is  Taunton, 
where  are  great  iron  and  steel  workini;  cstalilisluiu  iits.  Taunton  is  also  engaged  in  coiisting- 
trade.     Some  of  the  largest  schooners  on  the  coast  hail  from  this  port. 

In  Rhode  Island:  —  Providence,  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay,  is  the  second  city  of 
New  Kngland.  It  is  the  .seat  of  extensive  jewelry  manufacture,  and  is  an  important  cotton  and 
wool  market,  being  in  the  heart  of  the  great  textile  manufacturing  region.  Providence  has  a 
considerable  coast  trade. 

In  Connecticut :  —  Stonington  has  some  traffic  between  New  York  and  the  manufacturing 
centres  of  southern  New  England.  New  London  possesses  a  commerce  similar  to  that  of  Stonington. 
This  port  is  also  engaged  to  a  limited  extent  in  whaling  and  sealing.  By  way  of  New  Ilnven  there 
is  steamboat  traffic  between  New  York  and  the  manufacturing  towns  in  the  Connecticut  River 
valley. 

In  Virginia  :  —  Norfolk  exports  cotton,  coal,  breadstuffs,  and  lumber,  and  is  an  important 
tob.acco  market.  Newport  News  has  immense  ship-building  yards  where  ocean  steamers  and  war 
of  the  United  States  Navy  are  built,  and  ships  a  large  amount  of  cotton  and  tobacco. 


COM.MKRCIM.    (ilKiCllM'IIY  71 

In  North  Carolina: —  WUmimitnn  is  the  only  port  whose  waters  are  deep  enough  to  admit 
larj;e  vessels.  It  expurts  naval  stores,  cotton,  and  lumber,  and  ranks  next  to  Savannah  in  the 
exportation  of  turpentine. 

In  South  Carolina :  —  Charleston  harbor  has  been  much  improved,  and  the  port  is  gaining 
in  coMimercial  importance.  The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  both  tlie  common  and  the  Sea  Island  ; 
pliosphate  roolj,  naval  stores,  turpentine,  and  lumber.  BeaufoH  is  an  important  phosphate 
marliet. 

In  Georgia:  —  In  tlio  amount  of  cotton  it  exports.  Savnnnah  stands  next  to  New  York 
amom;  tlie  imrts  of  the  .\tlantic  coast.  In  the  shipment  of  turpentine  it  stauc's  first.  Other  exports 
are  rosin  and  lumber,     liriinsmck  is  the  most  important  lumber  port  on  the  South  Atlantic  coast. 

In  Florida  :  —  Fcrnanduia,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  a  lumber  market  of  some  importance. 
li'eij  West  has  sponge  fislieries  and  cigar  factories.  Appalarhicola,  on  the  Gulf  coast,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  is  also  a  lumber  market.  Pensacola  is  the  chief  lumber  port  on  the 
Gulf  coast.  Tampa  is  a  shipping-port  for  Cuban  traffic.  Phospliate  rock  is  an  important  export  of 
tlie  norllieni  Florida  ports.  ' 

In  Alabama :  —  Mobile,  the  only  .seaport  in  the  state,  has  some  traflie  in  lumlier  and  cotton. 
In  Mississippi :  —  Most  of  the  products  of  this  state  are  exported  through  New  Orleans,  but 
some  lumber  is  shipped  from  Bay  St.  Loins,  the  outlet  of  the  Pearl  Kiver  region. 

In  Texas :  —  Galveston  is  the  leading  port  of  the  state,  and  leads  all  others  in  the  country 
for  the  export  of  cotton.  New  Orleans  is  second  and  New  York  third  (see  page  68).  Other  exports 
are  oil  cake  and  meal,  animals  and  animal  products.  Srihirin  and  Corpus  Christi  carry  on  some 
trade  in  animals,  animal  products,  and  lumber. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  :  —  S.'.ilth'  ami  7".'r,,„i,..  ,,ii  I'li-ct  Suniul,  ^Vashill^fon,  export  lumber 

■extensively  and  iniiii>rl   Um.^iIU.   ami   mhrr  (irirninl   _ i,.      llir   l'ii-,'i    Suini.l  cities  are  growing 

rapidly,  and  tlirir  eniiiiih-ivnil  iiniiMriiu.r  i,  y,:iiiy  ii;,ir:i,iii-.  W'li.ai.  Iiimi1.it.  and  wool  are  the 
principal  exports  of  7'm;W«/i<;.  Ore-ou,  and  al.su  i.f  Sua  Umju.  Calil.iriiia.  Sm  I'idro,  the  port  of 
Los  Angeles,  whose  harbor  has  been  much  improved  of  late,  is  an  important  lumber  market,  receiv- 
ing nearly  all  the  lumber  used  in  Southern  California. 


Name  the  coast  cities  of  Maine,  and  give  some 
account  of  the  industries  and  trade  of  each,  — 
of  Massachusetts.  — of  Rhode  Island,  — of  Con 
necticut,  —  of  Virginia,  —  of  North  Carolina,— 


QUESTlOyS 

of  South  Carolina,  —  of  Georgia,  —  of  Florida, 
—  of  Alabama, —of  Mississippi.  — of  Texas,— 
of  the  Pacific  states.  From  what  cities  are 
forest  products  exported. 


VI. -NINE  LAKE   PORTS 


Commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes  has  always  found  very  active  competition  from 
the  railways,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  lake  system  is  closed  to  navigation  from 
December  to  May,  while  the  railways  have  no  such  interruption.  Within  the  past 
few  years,  steamers  of  great  speed  and  carrying  capacity  have  been  built  for  lake 
navigation,  and  now  do  much  of  the  carrying  of  certain  products.  Owing  to  the 
many  obstacles  to  navigation,  the  draught  of  these  vessels  is  limited  to  si.xteen  feet. 
They  average  fourteen  round  trips  each  season  between  Buffalo  and  Duluth.  The 
cargoes  consist  mainly  of  coal  and  manufactured  goods  going  west,  and  of  iron  and 
copper  ore,  grain,  and  lumber  returning  east.     Chicago  and  Cleveland  are  important 


72  COMMERCIAL    GEOGIIAPHY 

centres  from  wliicli  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  shipping  is  directed.  Coal  is 
sent  from  Buffalo  and  Erie  to  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Duluth,  Superior,  and  Toledo. 
Ore  is  shipped  from  Superior  and  Marquette  to  Cleveland  and  Chicago,  grain  and 
flour  from  Chicago  and  Duluth  to  Buffalo,  and  lumber  from  Michigan  to  Cleveland 
and  Buffalo.  The  commerce  of  the  lake  ports  has  wonderfully  increased  in  the  last 
twenty  years.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  tonnage  of  vessels  carrying  the  United 
States  flag  is  engaged  in  commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes.' 

Oswego,  the  most  important  city  of  the  I'nited  States  on  Lake  Ontario,  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  with  Canada.  The  largest  starch-factory  in  the  world  is 
situated  here. 

Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  is  an  important  railway  centre.  Coal  and  tlie 
manufactured  products  of  the  East  are  shipped  from  this  port  to  the  West  and  into 
Canada.  Grain,  sent  through  the  lakes  toward  the  seaboard,  is  trans-shipped  here  to 
the  boats  of  the  Erie  canal  and  to  the  trunk  railway  lines.  Buffalo  is  an  important 
industrial  centre,  jiarticularly  in  metal  and  wood  working,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
glucose. 

Cleveland,  situated  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  has  a  valualili'  shipping- 
trade  in  urain.  iron  ore,  and  manufactured  products.  Its  maiiui'.ictiiii's  are  very 
important,  and  include  iron  and  steel  wares,  furniture,  and  farming  implements. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  large  petroleum  refineries.  The  Ohio  canal  affords  an 
outlet  to  the  Ohio  River,  and  thence  to  the  Mississippi ;  and  trunk  lines  of  railway 
connect  the  city  with  the  business  centres  of  the  East  and  the  West. 

Toledo,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Erie,  is  a  great  railway  centre.  It  has 
water  communication  with  the  Ohio  Eiver  by  the  Miami  canal,  and  is  also  connected 
with  the  AV^abash  canal.  The  city  is  an  important  grain-market.  The  manufacture 
of  furniture  and  farm  machinery  is  extensively  carried  on. 

Detroit,  on  the  Detroit  Eiver,  between  lakes  Huron  and  Erie,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant port  between  Buffalo  and  Chicago.  More  tonnage  is  said  to  pass  Detroit  than 
any  other  point  in  the  world. 

Bay  City  and  vicinity  is  the  centre  of  a  vast  huuher  trade.  Some  of  the  richest 
salt  deposits  in  the  country  are  near  this  city. 

Chicago,  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  jMicliigan,  is  the  most 
important  city  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  second  in  popidation  on  the  American 
continent.  The  harbor,  naturally  poor,  has  been  greatly  improved,  so  that  now  a 
greater  number  of  vessels  clear  yearly  from  this  port  than  from  New  York  and  Phila- 

^  The  aggregate  value  of  American  vessels  engaged  in  the  lake  service  is  over  $50,000,000.  Of 
this  amount  Cleveland  owns  more  than  810,000,000.  Many  vessels  are  yearly  launched  and  a  large 
number  of  vessels  without  ratings  are  engaged  in  lumber  transportation.  Hero  as  elsewhere  in  the 
carrying  trade,  steam  is  superseding  in  tonnage  the  sailing  vessel.  The  iron  ore  of  the 
mines  in  Minnesota  affords  a  continually  increasing  amount  of  freight. 


coMMKH'/Af.  (n:i)(:i;.\i>iiv  73 

delphia  together.  There  are  open  waterways  to  the  Great  Lakes,  to  all  points  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  to  New  York  (by  way  of  the  Erie  canal),  and,  by  way  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  to  European  ports.  Chicago  is  the  greatest  railway  centre  in 
the  world.  It  is  the  meeting-point  between  systems  reaching  to  the  Atlantic,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  Canada,  and  the  racilic.  It  is  the  greatest  food  centre  in  the  world, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  the  products  of  the  states  west  of  this  point  find  their  way 
to  market  through  this  city.  It  not  only  handles  much  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
grain,  but  also  fixes  the  prices  of  wheat  and  corn  for  the  markets  of  the  world.  The 
meat-packing  and  meat-dressing  establishments  are  the  largest  in  the  world.  In 
manufactures  of  steel  it  competes  with  Pittsburg  and  eastern  Pennsylvania.  The 
manufacture  of  clothing,  furniture,  and  leather  goods  are  important  industries;  and 
in  the  printing  and  i)ublishing  of  books,  this  city  is  second  to  New  York  only. 
Chicago  is  the  financial  centre  of  the  North  and  Central  AVesteru  states. 

Milwaukee  is  eighty-five  miles  north  of  Chicago.  The  railway  facilities  of  the 
city  are  excellent.  The  greatest  industries  are  iron  and  steel  working,  and  the  brew- 
ing of  malt  liquors.  Some  grain  is  handled,  and  a  small  lake  traffic  is  carried  on. 
The  cream  colored  bricks  made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  are  a  leading  export. 

Duluth,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Superior,  is  a  rapidly  growing  city.  It 
is  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway.  The  chief  export  is  the  grain  harvested  from  the  vast 
fields  of  northern  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  and  Manitoba. 


QUESTIONS 

Give  a  general  account  of  tlie  commerce  upon  Name  and  characterize  the  trade  and  industries 

the  Great  Lalces.     What  are  the  principal  items  of  each  of  the  nine  cities  described, — Oswego, 

of  merchandise  in  this  trade  ?     How  does  this  — Buffalo, —  Cleveland, — Toledo,  —  Detroit, — 

trade  compare  in  value  with  our  coast-trade?  Bay  City, — Chicago,  —  Milwaukee,  —  Duluth. 


VII. -TEN   RIVER  PORTS 

Owing  to  the  facilities  of  transportation  furnished  by  the  river,  and  to  the  rail- 
way connections  with  the  other  great  centres  of  trade,  numerous  large  cities  have 
grown  up  along  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries. 

Vicksburg,  on  the  lower  Mississippi,  is  the  centre  for  the  output  of  many  cotton- 
seed oil  mills,  and  a  large  shipping  point  for  cotton. 

Memphis  is  one  of  the  most  important  cotton  markets  of  the  interior.  It  has 
many  factories,  and  is  a  great  distributing-point  for  the  inauufacturod  goods  of  the 
North  Central  states. 

St.  Louis,  on  the  Mississippi  River,  just  below  the  junction  of  the  IVIissouri,  is 
the  great  commercial  centre  of  the  Mississippi  valley.  The  population  of  the  city 
is  more  than  000,000.     From  its  situation  St.  Louis  commands  an  enormous  traffic 


74  COMMERCIAL    GKOCRAPIIY 

both  by  water  and  by  rail.  It  is  a  great  market  for  grain,  flour,  animals  and  animal- 
products,  tobacco,  cotton,  cottou  seed  oil,  and  sugar.  St.  Louis  has  numerous  local  indus- 
tries, the  more  important  being  metal  and  glass  working,  beer  brewing,  car  building, 
flouring,  and  brick  making.  The  wholesale  grocery  business  is  more  important  than  in 
almost  any  other  interior  city. 

St.  Paul  is  situated  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  tlie  ^Mississippi  Kiver,  and  is 
an  important  railway  centre.  This  city  has  a  great  flour  milling  business  and  mis- 
cellaneous trade.  During  the  decade  ending  1890  its  growth  was  extraordinary,  the 
population  increasing  from  41,000  to  133,000,  and  in  1899  reached  200,000. 

Minneapolis,  adjoining  St.  Paul  on  the  west,  is  the  greatest  flour  producing  centre 
in  the  world,  the  mills  having  a  capacity  of  about  40,000  barrels  a  day.  Wood  work- 
ing is  also  an  important  industry  in  both  Minneapolis  and  St.  I'aul,  particularly  that 
•of  cooperage  in  connection  with  the  flour-making.  Minneapolis  has  likewise  had  a 
phenomenal  growth.  In  1880  it  had  a  population  of  47,000 ;  in  1890,  165,000 ;  and 
in  January,  1899,  it  was  estimated  at  225,000. 

Kansas  City,  Missouri,  is  on  the  Missouri  Eiver.  Its  river  trade  is  unimportant, 
and  its  development  is  mainly  due  to  great  railway  facilities.  In  the  importance  of 
its  railway  connections,  it  ranks  next  to  Chicago  among  western  cities.  The  growth 
of  this  city  has  been  very  remarkable.  It  had  no  such  natural  advantages  as  the 
neighboring  cities  of  Topeka  and  St.  Joseph,  but  had,  on  the  contrary,  a  great  many 
disadvantages  such  as  usually  prevent  the  growth  of  cities.  Yet  Kansas  City  has 
become  one  of  the  leading  business  centres.  Owing  to  its  nearness  to  the  cattle 
ranges,  there  is  an  enormous  traflic  in  dressed  beef,  and  in  meat  packing  it  ranks 
next  to  Chicago.  There  is  a  constantly  growing  trade  with  Mexico.  Kansas  City, 
Kansas,  forms  one  business  centre  with  the  Missouri  city  of  the  same  name. 

Omaha  has  a  considerable  river  trafiic,  and  is  a  railway  centre  of  much  impor- 
tance. In  the  city  are  large  manufactures  of  railway  supplies.  In  dressed  meats 
and  packing  house  products  it  ranks  next  to  Chicago  and  Kansas  City.  Smelting 
and  metal  working  are  a  leading  industry. 

Louisville,  on  the  Ohio  Eiver,  is  the  greatest  tobacco-market  in  the  world.  By 
reason  of  its  extensive  railway  connections,  it  is  active  in  the  exchange  of  food- 
products  of  the  North  for  the  raw  materials  of  tin'  South.  I'ork  jiacking,  and  the 
manufacture  of  whiskey  and  metal  goods,  are  leailin-  iiulustrios. 

Cincinnati  ■  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  An 
extensive  traffic  is  carried  on  by  the  river;  by  the  ]\riami  canal,  which  gives  water 
connection  with  Lake  Erie;  and  by  the  great  trunk  lines  which  connect  the  city  with 
all  the  leading  commercial  points.  Pork-packing  was  formerly  the  chief  industry  of 
the  city,  and  is  still  active,  though  not  to  the  degree  that  it  is  farther  west.  Other 
industries  of  great  value  have  sprung  up.  Iron  and  steel  goods,  beer,  clothing,  boots 
and  shoes,  soap,  fine  pottery,  printing,  tobacco  nuinulacturing.  and  wood  carving,  are 
the  most  important. 


COMMF.IKIAI.    aEoailAl'IIY  75 

Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  City  :ir..  situated  on  the  Allcj^liany  ami  Moiion-ahehi 
rivers  where  they  unite  to  foiiu  the  Olno.  Tlie  first  growtli  of  I'ittsl.urg  was  due  to 
its  favorable  position  for  traffic  by  water ;  but  the  later  development  of  the  coal  and 
iron  mines  of  Pennsylvania  has  made  the  city  tlie  principal  iron  and  steel  producing 
centre  of  the  country.  The  natural  waterway  at  hand  has  been  of  inestimable  value  in 
the  develo})ment  of  the  city.  Coal  is  loaded  in  barges  at  the  mines  up  the  rivers,  and 
towed  to  the  various  cities  along  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  Glass  making  is  the 
second  industry,  and  in  this  product  Pittsburg  stands  first  in  the  country. 

.\  disrovcrj'  whii-h  h;is  proatly  benefited  Pittsburg  and  other  manufacturing  towns  in  Peniisy!- 

v;uii,i,  I  ihi...  aipl  Iii(li;iii;i,  i^  iliiU  of  natural  gas.  and  the  means  by  which  it  can  be  used  as  fuel. 
N.iiiii.il  -1^  li  ;>  -  .  MiiM  I   .  I,  I  ihr  use  of  coal  in  Pittsburg  that  much  of  the  smokiness  for  which  tlie 

(  riidr  |ii  iii.'ii  iiiii  i>  .un.ilirr  fuel  that,  owing  tn  its  rhpnpnf>5;s,  has  come  into  extensive  u.se  in 
si-vcial  kinds  of  nianularturi'.  ])articularly  in  nu'l:il  ;iimI  lj1:is<  wurking.  Great  petroleum  fields 
Iiavf  recenily  lu'eii  ik-vrluprd  in  Ohio.  The  prcdiin^  >ii  ih.  ,.-  m'W  fields  possess  only  a  small 
degree  of  illuminating,  but  the  usual  amount  of  Inat  uiviuu,  .|uality. 


QUESTIONS 

1 


Where  is  Vicksburg  ?     What  manufactured  1  and  trade  of  these  cities  ?    What  are  the  chief 

product  of   cotton  is  extensively  shipped  from  features  in  the  trade  of  Kansas  City  ?     What  is 

tliis  iii.jnt  "     T.n.atr  M(Miiilii>.     What  can  ynu  its  rank  as  a  railway  centre  ?     Name  tlie  leading 

,s:i\  ni  itsiiad.;'     Wliai  unai  'i'v  iirar  tlir  r,  m-  man  n  laclures   of   Omaha,  —  of   Louisville.       Of 

llii.  ii.r  ,ii   111,    Mi>H-~iii]ii  aiiil   Mi-sniiii  v\\rv~-:  «liai  a -ricultural  staple  is  Louisville  the  world's 

^'anii'  and  chana I'.rizc  the  linal  indusliJLS  and  ,L;rratr.>t   market?      Give   some   account   of   the 

the  principal  items  of  trade  of  .St.  Louis.     Wliere  commerce   and   manufactures  of   Cincinnati, — 

is  St.  Paul  ?     What  otlier  city  of  Minnesota  is  of    Pittsburg.      What    natural  advantages    for 

near  it  ?    What  can  you  say  of  the  industries  1   trade  have  these  cities  ? 


Vm. -OTHER  CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

In  nddition  to  the  foregoing  cities  that  owe  their  prosperity  in  a  greater  or  less  desree  to  their 
facilities  for  water  transportation,  there  are  many  other  cities  throughout  the  country  tliat  ow  '  tlieir 
development  to  other  causes,  such  as  nearness  to  coal  mines,  abundance  of  water  power,  or  to  rail- 
way facilities.     Among  them  the  following  are  mentioned,  with  their  chief  industries. 

In  Maine  :  —  Bam/or,  lumber  trade  ;  Aiib'trn  and  Lewiston  on  the  Androscoggin,  Bidilejord 
and  Smo  on  the  Saco,  cotton  and  woollen  goods  ;  Calais,  ship-building ;  Bocklaiid,  making  of  lime 
and  ship-building  ;  Enmfurd  Falls,  paper  pulp  and  paper. 

In  New  Hampshire:  —  Manchester  ranks  fourth  among  the  cities  of  the  country  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods  ;  Nashua  and  Doiht  also  have  important  cotton  and  woollen  factories ; 

'This  gas  is  found  by  sinking  wells  from  six  hundred  to  two  thousand  feet.  It  has  been 
extensively  used  as  fuel  in  factories,  and  for  lighting  and  heating  purposes  in  houses.  It  is  the 
cheapest  fuel  used.  New  fields  are  continually  opened.  Unfortunately,  evidences  of  diminishing 
supply  lead  to  the  belief  that  it  may  soon  be  exhausted. 

The  mains  from  tlio  gas-fields,  composing  the  high-pressure  system  of  one  company  alone, 
have  been  able  to  deliver  into  the  cities  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  nearly  200,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas  every  twenty-four  hours. 


76  COMMERCIAL    dEOGRAPHY 

Concord,  well  known  for  making  coaches  and  wagons ;  Berlin,  printing  paper  and  paper  pulp ; 
Laconia;  car-shops  and  cotton-mills. 

In  Vermont :  —  Burlington,  one  of  the  largest  lumber  markets  in  the  United  States,  has  a 
large  variety  of  manufactures ;  Rutland  and  Middlebury  supply  white  and  variegated  marbles. 

In  Massachusetts:  —  Lowell,  second  among  the  cities  of  the  country  in  the  amount  of 
cotton  manufactured  ;  Lawrence,  cotton  and  woollen  goods  ;  Worcester,  numerous  machine-shops, 
and  the  must  extensive  wire-factory  in  the  world  ,  AUleboro,  one  of  the  largest  jewelry  manufactur- 
ing towns  in  the  world ;  Sprinijfiehl,  seat  of  the  United  States  armory  where  the  Springfield  rifles 
are  made,  and  the  largest  envelope  manufacturing  city  in  the  world ;  Holyoke,  the  greatest  paper 
manufacturing  city,  whence  comes  half  the  paper  used  in  the  United  States,  also  extensive  cotton 
factories ;  Waltham,  the  largest  watch-factory  in  the  world  ;  Lynn,  boots  and  shoes  and  electrical 
appliances  ;  Salem,  coasting  trade  in  ice  and  coal,  and  manufactures  of  leather  and  cotton  goods ; 
Brockton,  boots  and  shoes. 

In  Connecticut; — There  is  a  greater  variety  of  manufactures  than  in  any  other  stnte. 
Willimaiitlr  has  large  thread  works;  Hartford,  firearms,  bicycles,  and  envilnii,  s ;  W.in  r'.iir;/ 
nianufacturfs  about  three-fifths  of  all  the  bracj  made  in  the  United  States,  using  vraily  aliMui  :;jhio 
tons  of  raw  copper  ;  Meriden,  tin,  britannia,  and  silver-plated  ware  ;  Norwich,  cotton  -.lo.ls.  paprr, 
and  machinery  ;  Neic  Haven  has  abotit  800  manufacturing  establishments  ;  Bridgeport,  cairiages, 
:-machines,  hardware,  machinery,  arms  and  ; 


In  Rhode  Island :  —  Woonsocket,  the  most  extensive  woollen-mills  in  the  country,  the 
greatest  rubber-shoe  factory  in  tlie  world  ;  Pawtiicket,  extensive  calico-printing  and  cloth-bleacliing 
establishments. 

In  New  York  :  —  Troy,  engineering-works,  collar  and  cufl  factories  ;  Tonkers.  carpets  and 
elevating  machinery ;  Rochester,  flour,  boots  and  slioes,  clothing,  and  the  most  extensive  nurs- 
eries of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  in  the  world  ;  Syracuse,  salt-works,  iron  and  steel  manufai'- 
tures  ;  Utira  and  Little  Falls,  grrat  phrpsc-markcts.  knitfins-rnills  ;  Aiilnirii.  asricultural  implement.s, 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics;  Kh,ii,;i.  iron  aii.l  -tprl  inauufa.tiuvs  ;  Cm/,.,,..,  rotton  goods,  and  the 
centre  where  a  third  of  the  lio>i,  i y  of  tlir  .ountiy  is  iiiadr  ;  '..  ,/.<■.<,  pMi  nsivp  nurseries  of  fruit- 
trees  and  other  trees  and  shrubs  ;  UluCL-rsdllu  and  .hdiiisOnrn,  lipad'nuuipis  of  the  leather  glove  and 
mitten  manufacture  of  the  country  ;  Schenectady,  locomotives,  machinery,  and  electric  works. 

In  New  Jersey :  —  Trenton,  extensive  pottery  works ;  Newark,  manufactures  in  great  vari- 
ety, jewelry,  steel,  celluloid,  thread,  and  clothing  ;  Paterson,  centre  of  the  silk  industry  of  the  coun- 
try, also  of  linen  thread  ;  i  Jersey  City,  watches,  glass-works,  crucibles  and  lead-pencils,  steel  works, 
and  extensive  abattoirs;  Elizabeth,  sewing-machines,  pottery,  oil  cloth,  hats,  machinery,  and  hard- 
ware. 

In  Pennsylvania  :  —  Allentoion,  Bethlehem,  Easlon,  and  Reading,  iron  and  steel ;  Wilkes- 
barre  and  Srraiiton.  coal-mines  ;  Williamsport,  a  great  lumber-market ;  Puttsville,  coal  and  iron  ; 
Altuona,  large  car  and  locomotive  works  and  repair-shops  ;  Oil  City,  centre  of  the  Pennsylvania 
petroleum  fields;  Erie,  oil  refineries,  leather  foundries  ;  Lancaster,  cotton  goods,  leather,  potteries, 
machinery,  and  implements. 

In  Delaware: —  Wilmington,  extensive  locomotive  and  car-building  works,  also  iron  steam- 
ship yarils.  and  Hour  mills  ;  gunpowder  and  carriages. 

In  Virginia  : — Richmond,  a  leading  tobacco-market  and  tobacco-manufacturing  centre; 
Lynchburg,  iron,  tobacco,  and  flour. 

iThe  silk  manufacturos  of  Paterson  have  a<lva;ipp(l  in  iiiiporlancp,  corresponding  with  the 
decline  of  this  Induslry  in  Creat  Britain,  until  now  om  ],r,,.lup|  of  mannfaptnred  silk  exceeds  in 
value  that  of  tlic  lattpr  ponntry.  Here  also  a ip  mills  pni|.lo\ril  in  makinu  liiipii  thread.  Patersou 
IS  favored  by  tlip  great  water-powers  afforded  by  the  falls  of  thu  i'assaic  liivcr. 


net. 


COMMElirlM.    < I IKx i HM'IIY  77 

In  West  Virginia  .-—  WhciUng,  the  largest  nail-inaniifacturiug  city  in  the  country  ;  Parkcrs- 
I.  gical  iictrolciim  ri'liiieries. 
In  North  Carolina: — Charlotte,  of  some  importance  as  the  depot  for  tlie  gold-mining  dis- 

In  Georgia  :  —  Athiiita,  the  business  centre  of  the  South,  and  one  of  the  chief  tobaeco- 
markits  south  of  Hiohuioud,  various  manufactures  ;  Augustn,  cotton  trade  and  cotton-mills ;  Mdmii. 
cotton,  iron,  and  machimry  ;  Jlume,  iron  ;  Columbus  has  a  good  water-power,  and  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  woollen  goods  is  increasing. 

In  Alabcuna  :  — Bmniiujham,  some  of  the  largest  iron-working  ostablishmcnts  in  the  country  ; 
Jlunl.si-illc,  foundries  and  wood-working;  Selma,  cotton. 

In  Tennessee  :  • —  Chnltanooga,  extensive  iron-working  establishments,  and  rapidly  increasing 
manufactures  and  trade  ;  Kiioxville  has  important  manufactures  of  iron ;  Xashville,  cotton,  iron, 
flour,  and  wood-working. 

In  Mississippi :  —  Jferklian  has  some  manufactures  of  cotton,  iron,  and  wood. 

In  Texas:  —  W'uro  and  Dallas  have  manufactures  of  iron,  flour,  cotton,  and  woollens. 

In  Michigan :  —  (iraiid  Mapids,  great  wood-working  shops,  especially  in  furniture-making  ; 
Sdiiiiiair,  lumber  and  salt. 

In  Indiana :  —  Indianapolis,  a  great  railway  and  business  centre,  with  iron  and  steel  working 
establishments  and  farmiug-implement  factories  ;  Evansville,  with  near-by  coal  beds,  has  manufac- 
tures in  much  variety  aggregating  .$5,000,000  worth  yearly  ;  Fort  Wayne,  railway  shops  and  iron  ; 
I'erre  Ilautc,  iron. 

In  Illinois  :  —  Peoria,  spirits  and  beer-brewing,  foundries  and  machinery  ;  Quiiiey,  flour  and 
maihinery  ;  Springjield,  flour  and  iron. 

In  'Wisconsin  :  —  liacine,  the  largest  threshing-machine  factory  in  the  world  ;  Oshkosli,  lum- 
ber ;  L(i  Cro:<se,  farm  machinery  ;  Fond  du  lac,  lumber,  wood  working. 

In  Ohio  :  —  Columbus,  machinery,  iron-working,  and  farm  implements  ;  Daijton.  on  the  Miami, 
important  manufactures  in  great  variety  ;  Sprinyficdd,  farm  implements  and  machinery  ;  Zanesville, 
steam-engines,  flour,  iron. 

In  Colorado  :  —  Denver,  an  important  railway  and  business  centre,  and  the  seat  of  extensive 
gold-  and  silver-mining  interests  ;  LeadviUe,  one  of  the  leading  silver-mining  towns  of  the  world ; 
Pueblo,  extensive  smelting  and  rolling  mills. 

In  New  Mexico  :  —  Trade  in  wool  at  Las  Verjas. 

In  "Wyoming  :  —  Cheyenne,  one  of  the  largest  cattle-markets  of  the  country. 

In  Nevada  -.  —  Virriinia  City,  the  site  of  the  Comstock  lode,  the  richest  mines  discovered  dur- 
ing this  century,  whence  has  come  much  of  the  wealth  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  Montana :  —  Butte  City,  mines  of  gold  and  silver  and  copper. 

In  California :  —  Los  Anf/eles,  the  centre  of  an  important  fruit,  wine,  and  wool-growing  region 
and  of  the  oil  belt  of  Southern  California  ;  Sacramento,  Stockton,  and  San  Jose,  great  wheat^shipping 
points  ;  San  Diego,  hides  and  wool;  Bedlands,  Riverside,  Pomona,  and  Santa  Barbara,  centres 
of  orange  growing. 


QUESTIONS 


What  cities  of  Maine  have  great  textile  indus- 
tries ?  What  fabrics  are  made  in  Biddeford  and 
Lewiston  ?  —  In  Paterson.  New  Jersey  ?  Xame 
another  industry  of  Paterson.     What  cities  of 


Massachusetts  have  extensive  cotton-mills  ?  — 
paper-mills?  What  are  the  leading  manufac- 
tures of  New  Hampshire  ?     What  can  you  .say 

of  the  industries  of  Worcester?  —of  Springfield  ? 


COMMERCIAL    GEOURAPIIY 


—  of  Waltham  ?  What  city  of  Vermont  is  the 
centre  of  the  marble  industry  ?  Name  the  chief 
items  of  Khode  Island  manufacture.  In  what 
city  of  Connecticut  are  there  j^reat  thread-mills  ? 

—  bicycle  factories  ?  Name  some  industries  of 
Troy.— of  Rochester,  —  of  Syracuse,  — of  Co- 
hoes.  —  of  Gloversville.     In  what  cities  of  Penn- 


sylvania are  there  great  iron-works  ?  Name 
some  manufactures  of  Altoona, — of  Wilming- 
ton, —  of  Uichmond,  —  of  Newark,  —  of  Wheel- 
ing. Name  two  southern  cities  that  have 
extensive  iron-works.  What  Is  the  leading  in- 
du.stry  of  Grand  Rapids  '!  —  of  Racine  ';  —  of 
Leadville  ?  — of  Sacramento  ?  —  of  Los  Angeles  " 


IS  gre:i 


IX. -THE  TERRITORY  OF  ALASKA 

The  territory  of  Alaska  has  an  area  of  about  half  a  million  square  miles,  the  greater  part  of 
which  lies  either  within  or  adjacent  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  West  of  the  coast-range  of  mountains  the 
climate  is  moderate,  being  modified  by  the  Japan  Current. 

The  (•(immeroial  importance  of  Alaska  lies  in  its  fisheries  and  mines.  The  former  include 
Avhalis,  seals,  and  si-a-nttt-r,  salmon,  cod,  and  halibut.  The  whaling  is  carried  on  by  American 
steamers,  and  the  annual  catch  is  worth  about  one  million  dollars  a  year.  Until  recently  the  seal 
rookeries  have  paid  an  annual  tax  to  the  government  of  about  half  a  million  dollars,  and  have 
yielded  furs  for  commerce  to  a  much  greater  amount.  The  fishing-banks  correspond  in  their  extent, 
character,  and  abundance  with  the  great  off-shore  fishing-banks  of  Eastern  America.  A  number  of 
vessels  bi'loiiuiii-  to  thf  Gl.auTSti'r  (Massachusetts)  fleet  iir.-  cn-au'ed  in  tli.-sp  tislieries. 

Thr  riv.is  ili:it  linw  into  tl..-  l';i.itic  Ocean  abound  in  li-li.  iiml  tli.-  lun  of  >:\lnion  inthe  spring 
iliiii  ill  tli.-Cnluiiiliia  Kivcr.  The  canning  nt  i  Iik  ii,li  i>  imw  ;iiiiihiustry  of  great  value, 
lutht-rn  part  uuly  inv  ilii-  resources  of  Al:isk:i  (lrvcl..i..(l.  Tlir  gn- at  cost  of  supplies 
and  the  difficulty  of  transport ai inn  liiudcr  the  prosecution  of  industrial  euterprises.  Gold  and 
silver  are  the  only  minerals  yet  niin.Ml,  f.xiinsive  placer  mines  have  been  developed  in  the  valleys 
of  tributaries  of  the  Yukon,  near  ihr  lasurii  border  line.  The  famous  Klondike  mines  are  in  Brit- 
ish territory.  Rich  deposits  have  been  found  more  recently  on  the  beach  at  Cape  Nome,  where  a  city 
of  several  thousand  people  sprang  up  in  1899.  Successful  quartz  mines  have  been  worked  for  years 
on  islands  of  the  southern  coast.  At  the  Treadwell  mines  on  Douglas  Island  is  the  largest  milling 
plant  in  the  world.  Coal,  copper,  iron,  marble,  and  other  minerals  are  known  to  exist.  The 
unworked  deposits  of  coal,  all  of  which  is  bituminous,  are  estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  supply  the 
United  States  for  centuries. 

The  forests  of  Southern  Alaska,  the  area  of  which  is  many  times  that  of  Pennsylvania,  contain 
valuable  woods,  such  as  sprucr,  lii .  Ininlmk.  rypress,  and  yellow  cedar. 

Each  year  since  its  puirhaM  liv  ilir  luited  States  the  commercial  value  of  this  territory  has 
been  demonstrated.  The  reveiiur  paid  iv.  mi  it,  to  the  general  government  is  already  severalmillions 
a  year,  and  as  the  rich  fisheries,  mineral  deposits,  and  forests  are  developed,  this  sum  nuist  i 


(jVESTIOXS 


What  is  the  area  of  Alaska?  What  is  its 
geographical  situation  V  What  is  the  climate 
west  of  the  coast  mountains?  What  great 
ocean-current  has  served  to  moderate  the  cli- 
mate of   his  section  ? 

In  what  does  the  principal  commercial  impor- 
tance of  Alask;i  consist?  What  are  the  chief 
items  iif  111!  ii>li.  lies  catch?  What  is  the 
estimaii.l  aniiiial  \ahie  of  the  whale  fisheries? 
What  i.M  iiih  1  |.aal  to  tlie  general  government 
by  thcsral  luol^iiKS? 


What  is  the  leading  product  of  the  river 
fisheries?  What  local  industi-y  has  grown  up 
as  a  result  of  tlie  salmon  catch  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  mineral  resources 
of  Alaska?  What  are  the  three  centres  of 
gold-mining?  Why  are  they  not  yet  more 
fully  developed  ?  Wliat  mineral  deposits  are 
known  to  exist?  Wliat  is  known  of  the  forest 
area?  AVheiv  are  the  Klondike  mines?  Uow 
did  Alaska  liecome  I'liitcd  Slates  territory  ? 
{Aus.     Hy  purchase  fiom  Russia  in  1807.) 


coMMEiiciAi.  cr.oiniAi'iiy  79 


THE    TERRITORY    OF    HAWAII 

The  Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  Islands,  a  group  of  eight  inhabited  and  four  unin- 
habited islands,  are  situated  about  one-third  the  distance  between  San  Francisco  and 
Syilney.  They  are  the  most  important  of  the  Pacific  islands,  and  American  whale- 
men were  tlu^  lirst  to  open  them  to  the  world.  With  the  decline  of  whaling,  and  the 
inc'rease  of  general  cinnnrerce,  they  became  recruiting  ports  to  the  merchant  marine. 
Heretofore  an  independent  government,  the  islands  are  now  a  territory  of  the  United 
States.'  Nearly  all  the  fertile  area  is  owned  by  Americans,  and  the  bulk  of  commerce 
is  with  our  own  country.     The  staple  product  and  export  is  sugar. 

The  natives  of  the.se  islands,  called  Kanakas,  are  fast  dying  off,  and  a  new  popu- 
lation is  taking  their  places.  Chinese  coolies  at  one  time  threatened  to  overrun  the 
islands,  but  they  are  now  excluded.  Portuguese,  Americans,  and  Japanese  are  emi- 
grating thither,  and  it  is  their  industry  that  has  increased  the  productiveness  of  the 
islands. 

In  the  year  following  annexation  the  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Hawaii 
nearly  doubled.  In  the  year  ending  June  .30,  1900,  the  trade  with  the  islands 
amounted  to  $o6,000,0()0,  nearly  two-thirds  of  which  was  sugar  imported  from  the 
island  ports.  Other  products  of  the  islands  are  rice,  fruits  and  nuts,  coffee,  hides 
and  skins,  and  copra,  or  dried  cocoanut.  The  goods  sent  to  the  islands  are  inanu- 
factures  of  all  kinds  and  wheat  flour. 

Honolulu  is  the  capital  and  most  important  city.  It  is  connected  by  steamship 
with  the  United  States,  Australia,  and  ('liina. 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  the  situation  of  tbe  Hawaiian  Islands  ? 
With  what  country  is  ino.st  of  tlie  commerce 
of  these  islands  carried  on  ?  IIow  were  they 
opened  to  commerce  ?  When  and  how  were 
they  acquired  by  the  United  States  ?     By  whom 


is  most  of  the  fertile  area  owned  ?  Wliat  is  the 
leading  commercial  product  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  ?  What  are  the  chief  exports  of  the 
United  States  to  these  islands  ?  What  is  the 
largest  export  and  its  annual  value  ? 


The  Philippine  Islands.  — The  northernmost  grouj)  of  the  Kast  Indies  comprises 
about  fourteen  hundred  islands,  of  wliieh  Luzon  is  largest  anil  of  most  eommercial 
importance.-     The  chief  products  of  the  islands  are  tobacco,  sugar,  hemp,  and  coffee. 

1  In  answer  to  a  petition  from  the  islands,  the  United  States  Congress  passed  an  act  on  July 
7,  1898,  to  annex  them.  The  formal  ceremony  of  raising  the  United  States  flag  took  place 
August  12,  1808. 

2  The  Philippines  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1899. 
Upon  their  pacification  mu.st  follow  the  development  of  their  large  agricultural  possibilities,  as  well 
as  the  unexplored  resources  in  timber  and  mineral  wealth.  Gold,  coal,  iron,  and  copper  are  kuuwu 
to  exist,  and  mines  have  been  worked  by  the  natives  and  Spaniards  to  a  limited  extent. 


80  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Tobacco  has  been  grown  on  the  islands  for  more  than  a  century,  and  cigar-making 
is  an  important  interest,  the  export  of  cigars  being  about  one  hundred  millions  a 
year,  mostly  to  Europe.  Hemp,  produced  from  the  fibre  of  a  species  of  banana,  is 
till'  best-known  product,  however,  and  much  of  the  cordage  of  the  world  is  made  from 
the  variety  known  as  Manila  hemp.  This  is  also  used  as  paper  stock.  Manila,  the 
capital,  is  on  a  deep  bay  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Luzon.  Iloilo,  the  second  city  and 
port,  is  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island  of  Panay. 

The  exports  of  the  United  States  to  the  Philippines  rose  from  .5127,000,  in  1898, 
to  $2,500,000  in  1900,  and  the  imports  from  $3,830,000  to  $5,800,000. 

Samoa  and  Guam.  —  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  Guam,  the  largest  of  the  Ladrone 
Islands,  was  ceiled  liy  Spain  to  the  United  States.  It  is  a  small  island,  of  importance 
only  as  a  telegraph  and  coaling  station  on  the  voyage  from  Hawaii  to  the  Philippines. 

The  island  and  harbor  of  the  Samoan  Island  of  Tutuila  passed  by  treaty  of  Great 
Britain  and  Germany  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  in  1899.  It  has  one  of 
the  best  harbors  of  the  Pacific,  but  the  island  has  only  a  few  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  is  of  little  commercial  importance  except  as  a  coaling  station  on  tlie  route  from 
San  Francisco  to  Australia. 

Porto  Rico.  —  P>y  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Porto  Eico  became  an  American  possession. 
It  is  fourth  in  size  of  the  West  Indies,  about  thirty-five  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  ninety-five  from  east  to  west,  with  nearly  one  million  inhabitants,  being  one  of 
the  most  thickly  settled  regions  of  the  world.  Its  capital  is  San  Juan  on  the 
northern  coast.  Ponce  is  the  largest  port  on  the  south.  It  exports  coffee,  sugar,  and 
tobacco,  and  imports  flour,  fish,  and  manufactured  goods.  So  thickly  peopled  and 
long  settled  a  country  cannot  hope  for  much  larger  commercial  development. 

Porto  Eico  exported  to  the  United  States  in  1900  goods  to  the  amoimt  of 
$1,350,000;  and  imported  to  the  amount  of  $3,600,000. 


QUESTIONS 


Where  are  the  Philippine  I.sland.s  ?  What 
city  is  tlie  capital  ?  On  what  island  situated  ? 
What  are  the  chief  exports  ?  —  the  undeveloped 
resources  ?  (If  what  importance  is  the  island  of 
Guam  ?  —  Tutuila  '.' 


Upon  what  route  of  commerce  are  Guam  and 
Samoa  situated  ?  Where  is  Porto  Hico  ?  What  is 
the  relative  size  amonn;  the  West  Indian  islands  ? 
—  its  chief  towns  '.'  Wliat  does  it  export  to  the 
United  States  ?     What  are  its  imports '.' 


CUMMEUCIAL   OEoallAl'UY 


CHAPTER  TIL 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND   HER  COLONIES 

Situation.  —  Thr>  Unitod  Kiii;4(loiii  is  composed  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  inclndes  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Wales,  and  the  adjoining  islands ;  the 
British  Empire  comprises  Great  Britain  and  all  her  colonial  possessions.  The  former 
is  situated  northwest  of  Continental  Europe,  and  is  separated  from  it  by  the  North 
Sea  and  the  English  Channel.  The  coast  is  irregular.  The  south  coast  of  England, 
and  the  coast  of  Wales,  have  numerous  fine  harbors.  The  east  and  west  coasts  are 
not  so  well  favored  by  nature,  and  shallows  and  bars  obstruct  the  ports  of  the  east 
of  Ireland.  The  larger  part  of  England  is  a  plain  of  considerable  fertility  ;  Scotland 
and  Wales  are  in  the  main  mountainous ;  Ireland,  except  upon  portions  of  the  coast, 
is  nearly  level,  about  one-twelfth  of  its  surface  being  bog  and  marsh  land. 

Among  the  great  natural  advantages  of  Great  Britain  for  commerce  and  the 
industries  dependent  upon  it  are :  an  equable  climate ;  abundance  and  convenient 
situation  of  deposits  of  coal  and  iron ;  convenience  of  access  of  all  points  to  the 
coast,  on  one  side  or  the  other;  central  position  of  the  British  Isles  among  the 
nations  that  carry  on  a  great  commerce;  and  the  number  of  its  navigable  estuaries, 
rivers,  and  good  harbors.  Engineering  skill  has  greatly  improved  these  natural 
facilities  by  supplementing  them  with  canals,  breakwaters,  lighthouses,  railways, 
and  bridges. 

Commercial  Importance.  — The  British  Empire  is  the  greatest  commercial  nation 
in  the  world.  About  half  its  export  trade  is  with  our  own  countrj',  and  its  com- 
mercial activities  are,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  United  States. 
The  principal  products  that  Great  Britain  takes  from  us  are:  Cotton,  wheat,  corn, 
and  flour,  beef  and  pork,  cattle,  dairy  products,  tobacco,  copper  and  copper  goods, 
books  and  maps,  leather  and  leather  goods,  petroleum,  oil  cake  and  meal,  lumber, 
furs  and  skins,  etc.,  to  the  amount  of  between  six  and  seven  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  annually. 

The  principal  products  that  we  take  from  Great  Britain  in  exrhange  for  those 
are :  Manufactures  of  cotton,  iron  and  steel  and  their  products,  woollen  goods,  silk 
fabrics,  chemicals  and  drugs,  tin,  hides  and  skins,  china  and  porcelain,  jewels  and 
jewelry,  leather  and  leather  products,  dressed  furs,  linen  goods,  and  many  other 
articles,  to  the  amount  of  between  one  hundred  and  two  hundred  millions  annually.' 

>  The  exports  of  the  United  Kinciloiii  to  all  oduntries  in  18!)8  were  :  Cotton  s;ooils.  .SL'7'.>.SS7,OOtl ; 

iron  and  steel,  §111,830,000;  wonll.  n  l; |,.  v|iio,:i.-,.iin(i  ;  ,n:ils.  .ir.,  s'.iu.tjt.iiuii  ;  lin,  n-  :mhI  I n 

yarns,   826,3,01,000 ;  copper,   brn^,.    :iim1    1.,ii1.   s-ji;.  l  |.',.iiuii  ;    rl,.iliii,u.    si'.;,  1 7^.000      -1.   mi- luiin-. 
$18,138,000;  chemicals  and  dniL;s.  sis. 11117.111111  ;  1h,i-,  aW.  ami  .-.[.ints,  .si7.s7.-,. ;  l.:,il„  1   ,ii,.|  ii.s 


82  COMMERCIAL    CEOGRArHY 

Great  Britain  is  a  great  "jobbing"  and  distributing  nation  ;  and  it  is  estimated 
that  one-fiftli  of  the  total  value  of  British  exports  represents  articles  that  have  been 
collected  from  various  parts  of  the  globe,  to  be  as  widely  distributed  again  in  other 
parts.  This  is  especially  true  of  such  materials  as  cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  imported 
in  the  raw  state,  and  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world  as  manufactured  goods. 
British  ships  have  also  a  large  share  of  the  carrying-trade  of  other  nations.  It  is 
claimed  that  Great  Britain  not  only  carries  three-fourths  of  her  own  immense 
commerce,  but  over  one-half  that  of  the  United  States,  Portugal,  and  The  Nether- 
lands, nearly  half  that  of  Italy  and  Russia,  and  more  than  one-third  that  of  France 
and  Germany.' 

I.  ENGLAND  AND  WALES. —The  area  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  a  little 
over  ll'O.dOO  scpiare  miles,  or  nearly  three  times  that  of  the  state  of  Ohio.  Eng- 
land is  the  largest  division,  and,  with  Wales,  embraces  half  the  kingdom. 

About  one-third  of  the  area  is  cultivated;  but,  owing  to  the  close  competition  of 
imported  grain,  agriculture  is  largely  directed  to  small  crops  and  garden  vegetables. 
The  grazing  area  is  large,  and  is  mainly  devoted  to  the  raising  of  thoroughbred 
horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  These  animals  are  reared  with  great  care,  and  are 
unexcelled.     Agriculture  is  of  little  value  commercially.      The  food  supply  of  the 

products,  $10,121,000;  wool,  sheep,  and  lambs,  $14,014,000;  herring  and  other  fish,  $12,942,000; 
arms,  ammunition,  etc.,  $12,.S88,000  ;  jute  manufacture  and  yam,  $11,618,000  ;  hardware  and  cut- 
lery, $9,943,000;  earthen  and  china  ware,  $9,099,000;  §ilk  goods,  $9,301,000;  india-rubber  manu- 
factures, $6,643,000  ;  togetlier  with  railway  carriages,  truclis,  books,  paper  and  stationery,  pickles, 
vinegar,  confectionery,  paiiitcis'  snj^pliis.  oilsecil.  iinplniients  and  tools,  hats,  men's  furnishings, 
coal  oil  products,  etc.,  to  tlic  tni;il  \;ilur  .ii  .si.  l  To.  lit  ii  mm  in. 

The  imports  of  the  Liiiir,!  I^iimilm,,  Irom  all  rountiifs  in  1898  were:  Breadstuff.s  $317,546,000; 
cotton,  $192, -545,000  ;  metals,  §126,;i4U,U0U  ;    wool,  $123,940,000  ;  wno.l  aii.l   limhrr,   sll  7.417, (iiiii  ; 

silk,   $89,809,000;    butter,   .$79,808,000;    woollen    maimfactures,    .s. Mi.. Mis, ;    l,;n..M    au.l    li:nii>,' 

$71,082,000;  live  stock,  $57,655,000;  tea,  $51,678,000;  leatli.r.  .s:;,s,..i|  l.ooo  ;  in.lia  iuM„r, 
$34,371,000;  wine,  $32,878,000;  beef,  $29,575,000;  jute,  $2(!.'.i7o.ooo  ;  mnitoii.  )524,r,lu,(H»ll  j 
cheese,  .$23,851,000;  eggs,  $22,283,000;  coffee,  $17,949,000;  togellin-  «itli  iniii.  hides,  petroleum,' 
tobacco,  flax,  hemp  and  tow,  cotton  and  flax  seed,  rice,  drugs  and  rli. mirals.  and  other  goods, 
to  the  total  amount  of  $1,854,723,000.  The  excess  of  imports  over  e.\]K.ii.s  in  this  year  amounted 
to  $384,654,000. 

Of  the  total  commerce  of  the  United  Kingdom  over  ninety  percent,  belongs  to  England  and 
Wales,  ovpr  seven  per  cent,  to  Scotland,  and  less  than  two  per  cent,  to  Ireland.  The  principal 
export,  of  hvlaiid  i^  liiii-ii.  and  linen  i; Is. 

Moiv  ihiii  rijiiom  ]i.  1  r,  Ml  "I  I  lic  total  commerce  of  the  Uuitcd  Klngdom  lu  1 898  was  wlth 
theUnih'l  M.iii-.  a  ,  I  i  .ni]i:ii.  il  \Mili  l,ss  than  four  per  cent,  with  British  North  America  and  about 
twent.v-l.iur  |icrr,nl.  «illi  all  I'.iiliMi  .■olonins  nntside  of  (Irnat  P.ritaiii. 

'  Coal  is  not  only  Iho  si  \aliiahlr  produrl  ,,r  iln^  rnitrd  Kinudoin.  but  is  the  only  important 

article  ol ,.|vo  ihai  i.  nm  iini.oiti.l      In  U iii|iiii  oi  ,o;,|  1,1,  ai    Britain  has  led  all  nations 

until  18!i!i,  wlii-ii  ilio  1  iiitoil  siatos  look  [uaaa'di  iirc  as  the  j;iiaiesi  cikU  producing  Country  in  the 
world.  Of  the  200,000,000  tons  uf  coal  ammally  produced  in  Great  Britain,  England  supplies 
seventy-one  per  cent.,  Scotland  fifteen  per  cent.,  and  Wales  fourteen  per  cent.,  while  only  a  fraction 
is  produced  in  Ireland.  Only  about  one-sixth  of  the  coal  mined  is  exported,  the  large  domestic 
consuniplion  being  necessary  to  carry  on  the  extensive  furnaces  where  iron  ores  are  reduced,  as 
well  as  lu  furnish  power  for  engineering  works  and  factories. 


COMMEnclAL    (iEncllM-IIY  83 

kin.v'ddiii  i-oiiies  chiefly  from  other  i-ounlries.  In  IS',1'.)  focid-proilucts  were  iiniKnlcil 
to  the  value  of  about  |8r)0,000,000.  The  inuiil.rr  of  proiih'  of  Hnghuiil  and  Wales 
classified  as  agricultural  is  about  five  per  cent  of  the  whole  pojjulation.^ 

These  countries  abound  in  minerals.  In  the  matter  of  coal-production  Great 
Britain  long  held  the  lead.  During  the  last  decade,  however,  the  United  States  has 
taken  first  place  among  coal-producing  nations.  The  British  coal-mines  are  situated 
in  the  northern  and  northwestern  part  of  England,  and  in  AVales.  Iron,  the  mineral 
next  in  value,  is  frequently  found  in  clo.se  proximity  to  the  coal.  Great  Britain  ranks 
second  in  production  of  j)ig-iron ;  but  the  product  of  the  home  mines  does  not  supply 
the  home  demand,  and  a  large  part  of  the  ore  used  is  imported.  In  the  production  of 
steel,  Great  Britain  ranks  next  to  the  United  States.  -  Clay  is  high  in  value  among 
mineral  products,  and  is  used  in  brick  and  terra-cotta  work,  while  the  finer  grades  are 
extensively  manufactured  into  porcelain  and  chinaware.  The  clays  are  found  mainly 
in  the  southern  part  of  England.  The  china  and  porcelain  ware  are  made  chiefly  in 
the  vicinity  of  London.  The  earthenware  export  is  almost  wholly  to  the  United 
States  and  the  various  British  dependencies.  Tin,  an  important  mineral  product, 
occurs  exclusively  in  the  ancient  and  still  productive  mines  of  Cornwall,  but  Great 
Britain  imports  more  tin  than  she  produces.  Salt,  lead,  and  slate  are  among  the  lesser 
economic  minerals. 

The  fisheries  of  Great  Britain  give  employment  to  an  army  of  more  than  100,000 
men.  The  English  fisheries  are  of  great  variety,  while  in  Scotland  the  chief  catch  is 
composed  of  herring,  haddock,  and  cod.  Owing  to  the  dangerous  location  of  the  prin- 
cipal fishing-banks,  and  to  the  inaccessibility  of  the  chief  markets  for  fresh  fish,  the 
value  of  the  fish  caught  in  Irish  waters  is  relatively  small. 

Great  Britain  is  probably  the  greatest  manufacturing  country  in  the  world.  In 
England  and  Wales  over  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  dependent  upon 
the  factories.  Cotton-manufacture  is  the  most  important,  and  the  product  forms  nearly 
a  third  of  the  total  value  of  the  manufactures  exported.  This  industry  is  situated 
mainly  in  the  northwest  of  England.  More  than  a  quarter  of  the  total  cotton  crop 
of  the  world  is  consumed  in  the  factories  of  Great  Britain,  which  have  almost 
half  the  total  number  of  spindles  of  the  world,  and  nearly  three  times  as  many 
as  the  United  States.  Iron  and  steel  manufactures  are  next  in  value  for  export. 
This  industry  is  centred  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  coal-mines.  Some  pig-iron  is 
shipped,  but  nearly  all  the  product  is  manufactured  before  it  is  exported.  Great 
Britain  produces  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  pig-iron  made  in  the  world,  and  less 
than  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  steel.     Woollen  manufactures  stand  third  in  value  as 

'An  English  journal  recently  said  :  "Landlords  desire  no  improvements  to  be  made  on  their 
lands  if  they  have  to  pay  for  them.  The  result  is  that  tenant  farmers  make  no  improvements,  and 
are,  in  consequence,  deficient  in  intelligence  and  energy.  American,  Canadian,  and  Australian 
farmers  have  every  inducement  to  improve  their  holdings,  because  they  work  on  their  own  land. 
British  farmers  are  thus  prevented  from  helping  themselves,  while  foreign  competition  is  en- 
couraged." 

•-In  1899  the  United  States  made  10,639,000  tons  of  steel,  this  being  twice  as  much  as  was  made 
in  Great  Britain  and  thirty-nine  per  cent,  of  the  entire  output  of  the  world.  The  pig-iron  output  of 
Great  Britain  in  1899  was  9,300,000  tons,  wliile  the  United  States  produced  13,G20,Ooio  tons  the  same 
year. 


Si  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

exports.  This  industry,  like  other  leading  ones,  has  its  principal  seats  in  the 
northern  part  of  England.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than  half  the  world's  wool 
supply  is  here  converted  into  fabrics.  Flax  manufacture  is  confined  chiefly  to 
Ireland,  and  jute  manufacture  to  Scotland.  Silk  is  made  in  and  about  London,  but 
the  product  is  small  when  compared  with  that  of  other  textile  fabrics. 

England  is  provided  with  the  best  roadways  in  the  world.*  In  connection  with 
them  the  natural  waterways  have  been  improved  for  navigation.  As  many  as  fifty 
rivers  are  said  to  be  more  or  less  navigable,  but  only  four  are  of  great  commercial 
value.  These  are  the  Thames,  the  Humber,  the  Mersey,  and  the  Severn  ;  and  except 
for  boats  of  very  light  draft,  engaged  in  passenger  traific,  only  the  estuaries  are 
navigable.  Nearly  2,500  miles  of  canal,  in  connection  with  the  rivers,  form  auxiliary 
highways  of  great  value.  The  roads,  canals,  and  navigable  rivers  serve  as  feeders 
to  the  railways,  the  great  highways  of  internal  commerce.  A  network  of  lines 
covers  the  mining-districts,  connecting  them  with  the  industrial  and  commercial 
centres.  Trunk  lines  penetrate  the  less  populous  districts,  joining  the  large  centres 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  kingdom. 


LEADING    COMMERCIAL   CITIES 

London,  the  capital  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  situated  on  the  Thames,  sixty 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  river  here  is  thirty  feet  deep  at  high  tide.  As  a  port, 
London  includes  the  whole  of  the  river  as  far  as  Gravesend.  Its  situation  at  the 
head  of  ocean  navigation,  on  a  river  which  allows  ocean  vessels  to  ascend  far  into 
the  interior  of  the  kingdom,  gives  it  a  commanding  position  for  continental  trade, 
and  for  all  trade  carried  on  by  eastern  and  southern  routes.  It  accordingly  holds 
a  leading  place  among  the  seaports  of  the  world,  as  it  is  the  world's  financial 
centre.  It  is  also  the  largest  city,  the  population  being  over  five  millions.  Before 
the  discovery  of  the -New  World,  England  had  no  very  extensive  commerce,  but  the 
little  that  existed  was  carried  on  from  London.  With  the  development  of  the  wealth 
■  of  the  Americas  came  many  voyages  of  discovery.  But  while  the  voyages  of  the 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  others  were  chiefly  of  adventure,  the  voyages  of  the  English 
were  for  commercial  ends.  Then  followed  the  change  in  the  trade  between  eastern 
Asia  and  western  Europe  from  caravans  to  the  sea-route  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  centre  of  the  commercial  world  was  thus  changed  from  Italy  to  Great 
Britain. 

London  is  the  centre  from  which  this  trade  has  been  mainly  carried  on.  For 
years  this  city  practically  controlled  commerce  with  the  West  Indies  and  China; 
but  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  has  reduced  this  traffic  relatively,  and  increased 
the  commercial  importance  of  some  other  ports.  Another  cause  that  has  cost 
London  some  of  her  commercial  importance  is  the  great  increase  of  manufacturing 
in  the  northern  part  of  England,  and  the  consequent  direction  of  traffic  to  adjacent 

1  The  Romans  introduced  the  art  and  the  science  of  road-making  into  England,  and  evidences 

.of  their  work  arc  still  to  be  seim. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY  85 

ports,  especially  to  Liverpool.  Neurly  all  the  cliief  railway  lines  of  Great  llritaiu 
radiate  from  London,  ami  these  are  an  important  factor  in  the  commercial  supremacy 
of  the  city.  A  great  variety  of  industries  is  carried  on  in  London,  but  in  no  one 
industry  is  the  city  pre-eminent. 

Liverpool,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Mersey,  has  a  population  about  one-ninth 
that  of  London,  yet  its  commerce  is  but  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  former  city.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  traffic  between  England  and  the  United  States,  both  passenger 
and  freight,  goes  through  Liverpool.  Liverpool  is  also  the  shipping  port  for  industrial 
England,  most  of  the  raw  materials  being  imported  and  most  of  the  manufactured 
goods  being  exported  at  this  port.  The  importance  of  London's  shipping  is  largely 
due  to  its  control  of  nearly  all  the  coasting-trade.  Early  in  the  last  century  Liver- 
pool was  but  a  small  place.  Its  importance  grew  with  tlie  development  of  cotton  and 
woollen  manufactures  in  the  region  lying  behind  it.  The  river  Mersey,  as  a  harbor, 
is  capacious ;  but  the  building  of  docks  and  quays  has  been  necessary  for  commerce, 
and  the  six  or  seven  miles  of  continuous  docks  on  the  Liverpool  side  of  the  INIersey 
is  unparalleled  elsewhere.  The  port  of  Liverpool  also  includes  the  docks  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  at  Birkenhead,  which  is  a  commercial  "annex,"  the  two 
•cities  being  connected  by  a  railway  under  the  Mersey.  The  aggregate  water  space  of 
the  Birkenhead  docks  is  more  than  600  acres,  and  the  length  of  the  quays  upwards 
•of  thirty-four  miles.  Liverpool  possesses  the  finest  facilities  in  the  world  for  the 
handling  of  merchandise. 

Newcastle,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  on  the  extreme  northeastern  coast,  is  the  third  port 
in  tlie  amount  of  tonnage.  Its  exports  are  almost  entirely  coal,  iron,  ami  iron  and  steel  products 
manufactured  in  the  vicinity. 

Cardiff,  the  chief  harbor  of  Wales,  exports  coal  and  iron,  and  the  iron  and  steel  goods  manu- 

Portsmouth  .and  Plymouth,  on  the  F,ii<;li,sh  Channel,  arc  headquarters  of  the  British  navy. 
Southampton,  on  the  Solcni,  is  \\w  tcniiiims  of  steainshiii  lines  from  the  United  States,  and  to 
Mediterranean,  South  African,  and  South  Amerieau  ports.  ( ithcr  ports  are  :  Bristol,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Severn  ;  Sunderland,  on  the  coa-st  near  Newiastli-  :  Hull,  about  one  hundred  miles  south  of 
•Sunderland  ;  Cowes,  on  the  Isle  of  Wight ;  and  Swansea,  near  Cardiff,  in  the  south  of  Wales. 
A  larjre  amount  of  shii>building  is  done  at  Newcastle,  Sunderlaml,  and  iieigld)oriiig  ports.  Hull 
is  the  i>rniripal  port  of  the  English  fisheries. 

Manchester  is  the  most  important  of  the  inland  industrial  cities  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  the  greatest  cotton-manufacturing  centre  in  the  world,  and  in  all  the 
neighboring  towns  the  manufacture  of  cotton  textile  goods,  and  of  the  machinery 
for  making  them,  is  the  chief  industry.  For  more  than  three  hundred  years  Man- 
chester has  been  famous  for  its  woven  fabrics,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  part  of  the 
civilized  world  in  which  the  products  of  its  factories  have  not  been  used.  For  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  INLanchester  has  been  connected  with  the  port  of  Liverpool 
by  a  canal,  but  the  capacity  of  the  latter  has  long  been  insufficient  for  the  great 
increase  of  trade,  and  a  new  ship  canal  was  opened  for  traffic  in  1893.  This  canal, 
•one  of  the  most  notable  efforts  of  modern  engineering,  inchides  a  system  of  wharves 
and  docks  which  now  makes  it  as  valuable  commercially  as  the  mouth  of  the  Mer- 
isey.     This  work  aiot  only  gives  Manchester  direct  open  traffic  to  the  sea,  but,  by 


86  VUMMEKCIAL   UEUGliAl'lIY 

avoiding  the  necessity  of  lightenige,  it  also  effects  a  great  saving  to  both  import 
and  export  trade. 

Birmingham  has  long  held  the  first  place  in  the  industrial  world  as  a  hardware 
nianufaeturing  centre.  There  are  abundant  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  its  vicinity.  The 
citj'  is  celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  brass  goods,  jewelry,  screws,  steel  pens, 
and  other  small  hardware,  as  well  as  for  iron  goods,  and  machinery  of  every 
description. 

Coventry  has  large  bicycle,  sewing-macliine,  and  other  factories.  Sheffield  lias  extensive 
cutlery  worlis.  Leeds  is  the  great  woollen-manufacturing  centre  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  situated 
in  the  coal  ami  iron  region,  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery  and  other  iron  and  steel  articles  is 
also  inijioriant.     Bradford  is  another  large  woollen-manufacturing  centre. 

At  Burton  on  Trent  more  beer-brewing  is  done  than  in  any  other  town  in  the  world. 
Northampton  and  vicinity  is  the  seat  of  much  of  the  shoe-manufacture  of  the  kingdom. 


n.  SCOTLAND.  —  Scotland  has  an  area  half  as  great  as  that  of  England  and 
Wales,  and  about  one-seventh  their  population.  It  includes  186  islands  adjoining 
the  coast.  More  than  three-fourths  of  the  area  of  Scotland  is  sterile,  consisting  of 
mountain,  moor,  and  other  waste  lands.  One-fifth  of  the  area  susceptible  of  cultiva, 
tiou  is  covered  by  forests.  The  northern  part  is  high  and  rough,  crossed  by  many 
deep  valleys,  and  penetrated  by  long  arras  of  the  sea.  It  is  sparsely  inhabited.  In 
the  south  the  land  is  rolling,  and  better  fitted  for  tilling. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  with  much  skill  and  energy.  Cereals  are  more 
extensively  raised  thatt  in  England ;  yet  the  main  supply  of  food  is  imported. 
The  population  engaged  in  agriculture  is  about  one-quarter  that  employed  in  the 
factories.  Coal  and  iron  abound  in  the  south,  and  have  promoted  the  industrial 
growth  of  Scotland.  Iron  is  extensively  wrought.  Coal  enough  is  mined  to  form 
an  export.     The  quarrying  of  granite  forms  a  considerable  industry. 

The  chief  industries  of  Scotland  are  concerned  with  the  manufacture  of  vege- 
table fibres.  The  manufacture  of  flax,  hemp,  and  jute  receives  especial  attention ; 
that  of  woollen  fabrics  is  nearly  as  important,  and  in  the  quality  of  the  product, 
Scottish  goods  are  unequalled.  The  value  of  the  cotton-maufactures  is  about  one- 
half  that  of  all  the  textile  products.  The  making  of  liquors,  spirituous  and 
malt,  is  largely  carried  on. 

In  ship-building,  the  Scots  stand  pre-eminent,  not  only  in  the  amount  of 
tonnage,  but  in  the  quality  of  the  vessels.  The  majority  of  the  iron  and  steel  steam- 
ships sailing  under  all  flags,  except  the  American,  are  built  in  Scotland.  A  law  of 
the  United  States,  intended  to  protect  American  ship-builders,  requires  that  all 
vessels  flying  the  American  flag  must  be  Ameriean-built. 

Scotland,  considering  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  (■(>\intry,  is  well  provided 
with  roads,  and  the  industrial,  mining,  and  commercial  centres  are  connected  by 
railways.  Waterways  exclusive  of  harbor  improvements  are  of  little  moment. 
A  canal  from  Moray  Firth  on  the   east,  to  Loch  Linnhe  on  the  west,  crosses  the 


CUMMEIICIM.    (IKOCHAI'IIY  87 

northern  part  of  the  country,  and  saves  the  boisterous  voyage  around  tlic  north  to 
vessels  of  light  draught.     Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  are  connected  by  canal. 

The  industrial  growth  of  Scotland  is  comparatively  recent,  and  most  of  the 
commercial  development  dates  from  the  introduction  of  steamships. 

Glasgow,  situatcil  on  the  liiver  Clyde,  twenty  miles  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  is 
the  second  city  of  Great  Britain.  The  river  has  been  greatly  improved  for  navi- 
gation by  the  removal  of  bars  and  ledges,  and  its  depth  has  been  increased  to  over 
twenty-two  feet.  Within  the  last  few  years  commerce  has  increased  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity.  On  the  banks  of  this  river  are  a  succession  of  shipyards,  where  most 
of  the  great  transatlantic  and  other  ocean  steamships  have  been  built.  Owing  to 
the  proximity  of  coal  and  iron  mines,  Glasgow  is  a  great  industrial  centre.  The 
American  civil  war  benefited  the  city  greatly  by  stimulating  ship-building. 
Fabrics  of  all  kinds  are  made  in  the  city  and  outlying  districts.  A  great  deal  of 
bleaching,  printing,  and  dyeing  is  done,  and  in  dyeing  certain  colors,  and  printing 
ginghams,  calico,  and  other  goods,  the  city  has  a  world-wide  reputation.  There  are 
many  chemical-manufacturing  and  metal-workiug  establishments,  the  latter  being 
connected  principally  with  the  ship-building  industry.  Most  of  the  commerce 
■  between  Scotland  and  the  United  States  passes  through  Glasgow.  It  is  the  only 
port  of  much  importance  on  the  west  coast. 

Dundee,  on  the  Frith  of  Tay,  twelve  miles  from  the  sea,  is  the  second  port  in 
commercial  importance.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  British  whale  and  hair-seal  fisheries. 
The  city  also  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  particularly  in  vegetable  fibres. 
More  linen  is  made  here  than  in  any  other  city  in  England  or  Scotland.  There  are 
also  extensive  manufactures  of  jute  and  hemp,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  people 
are  dependent  upon  these  industries.  Ship-building  is  next  in  importance.  The 
harbor  of  Dundee  is  the  best  in  Scotland. 

Aberdeen  is  the  chief  seaport  of  the  north  of  Scotland.  It  has  a  considerable 
fishing-fieet.  The  commerce  is  nearly  all  coastwise.  Ship-building  is  one  of  the 
most  important  industries  of  the  city.  Woollen,  linen,  cotton,  and  paper  are  manu- 
factured, and  the  largest  comb-works  in  the  world  are  in  Aberdeen. 

Edinburgh,  the  ancient  capital  of  Scotland,  is  situated  on  the  Firth  of  Forth  on 
the  east  coast.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  educational  centres  of  Great  Britain. 
Printing  and  kindred  arts  are  the  most  important  industries.  Among  others  of 
consequence  is  wood-working. 

Woollen  manufacture  was  first  carried  on  in  the  valley  of  the  Rivei"  Tweed, 
near  the  southern  border  of  Scotland.  The  quality  of  the  goods  was  distinctive, 
and  the  product,  to  this  day  called  "  tweeds,"  has  taken  its  name  from  the  region. 
The  goods  are  now  made  in  other  parts  of  Scotland,  and  in  otlier  countries,  tliough 
Hawick  and  Galashiels,  in  the  Tweed  Valley,  still  manufacture  large  quantities. 
Paisley,  a  thread  and  woollen  manufacturing  centre  near  Glasgow,  was  once  famous 
for  its  shawls,  which  were  an  excellent  imitation  of  the  Persian. 


88  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

III.  IHELAND.  —  Ireland  lies  west  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  is  separated 
from  them  b}'  St.  George's  Channel,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  the  North  Channel.  It 
has  an  area  a  little  greater  than  that  of  Scotland. 

The  surface  of  the  island  is  generally  level,  and,  the  rugged  western  coast 
excepted,  low.  The  interior  plain  is  so  level  that  in  many  places  the  water  does  not 
drain  off  sufficiently  to  admit  of  cultivation.  Thus  large  areas  of  bog-land  and 
marsh  are  formed,  and  these  cover  one-twelfth  of  the  island. 

Agriculture  is  more  generally  followed  in  Ireland  than  in  either  England  or 
Scotland,  and  a  third  more  people  are  dependent  upon  the  soil  than  upon  manu- 
facturing. The  climate  is  equable,  the  soil  very  fertile,  the  various  food-products 
abundant,  and  the  people  remarkable  for  physical  and  intellectual  vigor.  The  soil 
is  mainly  owned  by  English  proprietors,  by  whom  the  Irish  people  have  been 
greatly  oppressed.  So  large  a  proportion  of  the  products  of  Irish  industry  are 
annually  drained  off  to  England  to  pay  rents  for  the  land  of  Ireland,  that  what 
remains  is  hardly  enough,  even  in  the  best  of  seasons,  to  supply  the  simplest 
necessaries  of  life.  These  rents  are  paid  by  the  Irish  "tenant-farmers,"  whose 
condition  it  is  the  object  of  the  present  parliamentary  agitation  to  ameliorate,  by 
reduction  in  rents,  and  by  conceding  to  the  Irish  people  some  share  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  domestic  concerns.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  see  how  any  of  the 
proposed  reforms  can  benefit  the  farm  laboring-class,  who  are  much  more  numerous 
than  the  tenant-farmers,  and  whose  condition  is  far  more  pitiable. 

The  system  of  land  tenure,  commonly  known  as  rack-renting,  is  one  that  is  rapidly  depopu- 
lating the  island  and  reducing  its  productiveness  to  the  lowest  degree.  Almost  the  whole  area  is 
owned  by  a  few  English  proprietors,  and  they  let  and  sublet  their  estates  in  small  holdings  to  their 
various  tenants.  No  improvements  are  made  by  the  landlords  themselves,  and  when  any  are  made 
by  the  tenant,  his  rent  is  promptly  and  arbitrarily  raised.  During  the  past  fifty  years  the  struggle  of 
the  people  has  been  not  so  much  for  the  comforts  of  life  as  to  ward  off  actual  starvation.  More 
than  once,  famine  and  its  attending  horrors  have  swept  away  thousands,  and  the  popul.ation  which, 
according  to  the  law  of  increase,  should  have  doubled  in  twenty-five  years,  has  actually  decreased. 
In  fifty  years  it  has  fallen  from  8,000,000  to  less  that  5,000,000,  though  much  of  this  decrease  is 
due  to  emigration. 

The  principal  crops  are  oats  and  potatoes,  though  in  the  north  ilax  is  more 
extensively  cultivated  than  anywhere  else  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Grazing  brings 
considerable  returns ;  and  butter,  cheese,  and  meat  are  exported,  chiefly  to  England. 
Two-thirds  of  the  arable  area  is  devoted  to  pasturage. 

The  fisheries  of  Ireland,  chiefly  cod,  mackerel,  and  lierriug,  give  em])loyment  to 
about  25,000  men. 

Several  varieties  of  minerals  are  found  in  Ireland,  but  they  are  little  developed. 
Fifteen  times  as  much  coal  is  imported  as  is  mined.  Peat,  dug  from  the  bogs,  is 
the  fuel  used  by  many  of  the  people.  Several  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore  exist,  but 
the  lack  of  coal  prevents  their  development.  What  little  iron  is  produced  is  ex- 
ported.     Gold,  sulphur,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  are  found,  but  in  small  quantities. 

In  proportion  to  the  population  manufactures  are  not  so  active  now  as 
two  centuries  ago.  The  lack  of  coal  is  compensated  to  a  considerable  extent  bj'' 
the  amount  of  water-power  at  hand.     Burdensome  laws,  enacted  a  century  ago  to 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY  8& 

Imild  up  English  at  the  cxponse  of  Irish  industries,  so  crippled  the  manufac- 
tures of  Ireland  that  they  have  never  fully  revived.  Four  or  five  centuries  ago 
Ireland  exported  woollen  goods  to  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  Now  much  of  the 
ivoollen  cloth  u.sed  in  the  island  is  imported.  The  linen  industry  did  not  suffer  so 
much  as  the  woollen  industry,  and  of  late  years  this  has  greatly  revived.  As 
a  linen-producing  country,  Ireland  now  leads  all  others.  The  only  other  products  of 
commercial  importance  are  whiskey  and  malt  liquors.  Irish  whiskey  has  for  cen- 
turies rivalled  the  Scotch  product. 

The  Shannon  is  the  largest  river  in  Ireland,  and  drains  the  central  portion  of  the 
island.  It  is  navigable  a  considerable  distance.  Canals  are  more  used  in  Ireland 
than  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  chief  canals  are  those  connecting  Dublin, 
on  the  east  coast,  with  the  Shannon  valley.  The  Grand  canal  runs  east  and  west, 
while  the  Eoyal  canal  runs  from  northwest  to  southeast.  The  island  is  provided 
■with  a  good  railway  system. 

Belfast,  on  the  northeast  coast,  is  the  most  prosperous  city  of  Ireland,  and 
Belfast  linen  is  known  in  nearly  all  the  shops  of  the  world.  It  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable commerce,  but  linen  spinning  and  weaving  absorb  most  of  its  energy. 
So  extensive  has  this  industry  become  that  of  late  years  quantities  of  flax  are 
imported  from  Eussia,  Germany,  and  elsewhere.  Linen  cloth,  thread,  and  yarn 
are  the  staple  exports  of  the  city. 

Dublin,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  east  coast.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  but 
does  not  compare  in  the  amount  of  its  coraineroe  with  Belfast.  Its  industries 
are  chiefly  the  manufacture  of  whiskey  and  porter,  and  these  products  are  also 
the  principal  exports. 

Cork,  on  the  southern  coast,  exports  dairy  products,  chiefly  butter,  from  the  sur- 
rounding country.      It  also  exports  some  liquors  manufactured  in  the  city. 

ftueenstown  is  the  port  through  which  the  commerce  of  Cork  is  carried  on.  It 
is  the  first  stopping-place  for  vessels  plying  between  New  York  and  Liverpool. 

Limerick,  on  the  estuary  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon,  is  the  chief  port  on  the 
west  coast.     Some  linen  is  manufactured  here. 

Balbriggan,  on  the  coast,  about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Dublin,  has  given  its 
name  to  fine  qualities  of  hosiery  and  knit  goods. 


QT'ESTIOXS 


Wliat  roiiiitries  compose  the  United  Kiiitjiloin 
of  (ireat  Britain  anil  Ireland?  What  is  tlie 
nature  of  tlie  coast  of  England  and  Wales? 
Wliat  is  the  cliaracter  of  the  surface  of  England  ? 
—  of  Wales?  — of  Scotland?- of  Ireland? 

Enumerate  some  of  the  great  natural  com- 
mercial advantages  of  this  kingdom.  AVIiat  is 
its  comparative   standing  in  the  world's  com- 


merce? With  what  country  is  its  export  trade 
greatest  ?  What  are  the  leading  imports  of 
Great  Britajn  from  the  United  States?  What 
are  its  principal  exports  to  the  United  States? 

What  proportion  of  British  imports  are  re- 
exported ?  In  what  respect  do  these  imports 
differ  from  the  same  exports?  What  character 
of  merchandise  chielly  makes  up  tlie  re-exporta- 


COMMERCIAL   GEOanAPHY 


tions  ?  Is  the  carrying-trade  of  Great  Britain 
confined  to  British  niercliandise  ?  For  what 
other  countries  is  Great  Britain  a  transporter  of 
merchandise  ? 

What  is  tlie  area  of  the  kingdom  ?  What 
proportion  of  this  do  England  and  Wales,  taken 
together,  represent  ?  What  proportion  of  the 
area  of  these  countries  is  cultivated  land  ? 
Whence  does  the  food-supply  mainly  come  ? 
What  two  minerals  are  of  gieat  importance  to 
the  industries  and  commerce  of  the  kingdom? 
What  is  the  relative  position  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  Slates  in  the  output  of  coal  ? 

—  of  iron  and  steel?  What  mineral  product 
of  Great  Britain  is  next  in  value  ?  What  other 
mineral  products  can  you  name  ? 

Give  some  account  of  the  fisheries  of  Eng- 
land, —  of  Scotland,  —  of  Ireland.  Why  are  the 
fisheries  of  Ireland  of  comparatively  little  value  ? 
What  is  the  rank  of  Great  Britain  as  a  manu- 
facturing country  ?  What  proportion  of  the  in- 
habitants of  England  and  Wales  are  dependent 
on  manufacturing  industries  ?  What  is  the  lead- 
ing item  among  manufactures  ?  What  propor- 
tion of  the  world's  cotton  crop  is  consumed 
in  British  manufactures  ?  What  item,  among 
manufactures,  stands  next  in  importance,  in  the 
value  of  the  proiliicl  ?  What  item  third  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  English  internal  trade-routes  ? 

What  is  an  estuary  ?  Give  some  account  of 
London,  its  situation,  population,  rank  in  com- 
merce and  finance,  and  importance  as  a  seaport. 
AVhat  gave  rise  to  the  first  great  conmiercial 
importance  of  this  city?  How  has  its  trade 
been  affected  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  ? 

—  by  the  growth  of  other  ports  in  the  north  of 
England  ? 

Describe  the  situation  of  Liverpool.  Why 
has  its  commerce  become  of  such  great  impor- 
tance ?  What  is  the  extent  of  the  Liverpool 
and  Birkenhead  docks  and  quays  ?  Desciibe  the 
situation  and  commercial  character  of  New- 
castle,—  Cardiff,  — Portsmouth,  —  Plymouth,  — 


Southampton,  — Bristol,  —  Sunderland,  —  Hull, 

—  Cowes,  —  Swansea. 

AVhat  inland  city  of  Kiil-! m  !  t:i1:-  tirst  rank 
asamanufacturingcpiiii'  '  \\].r..,.  ilieprin- 
cipal  factory  products  oi  Mi;,.:  l!y  what 

great  public  work  is  Maiir:i.-,  I  ■,,  ..mw:  ship- 
communication  with  Liverpool  ?  Fur  what  in- 
dustries is  Birmingham  chiefly  celebrated?  — 
Coventry  ?  —  Sheffield  ?  —  Leeds  ?—  Bradford  ? 

—  Burton-on-Trent  ?—  Northampton  ? 

What  is  the  area  of  Scotland  as  compared 
with  England  and  Wales?  What  is  the  nature 
of  its  surface  ?  What  can  you  say  of  its  agricul- 
tural interests  ?  What  are  its  principal  mineral 
products?  Name  its  chief  industries.  In  what 
industry  are  the  Scotch  pre-eminent  ?  What  city 
and  its  vicinity  form  the  principal  seat  of  the 
ship-building  interests  ?  AVhat  are  the  leading 
maimfactures  of  Glasgow  ?  Describe  the  situ- 
ation of  Dundee,  and  give  some  account  of  its 
industrial  and  commercial  activities, — of  Aber- 
deen,—  of  Edinburgh, — of  the  Tweed  valley, — 
of  Hawick,  Galashiels,  and  Paisley.  What  can 
you  say  of  the  internal  trade  facilities  of  Scot- 
land ? 

Pcirrnii^  thi^  situntion.  companitive  area,  and 

Mllfarr  rli  r;,rI,.,lMir.  ,,f    Inlaml.        WllUt    iS    the 

ii:iini.M,i  ii.~,,il;nnlrliiii,Hr-.'  \V  1 1  v  a  IV  ilie  Irish 
lir,i[.li-.  lliMir^h  inlial>iling  a  fcilil.'  country,  so 
poor?  What  is  said  concerning  the  present 
tenantry  system  ?  Name  the  principal  products 
of  Ireland.  What  ijroportion  of  Irish  land  is 
devoted  to  grazing  ? 

What  are  the  mineral  deposits  of  Ireland  ? 
What  is  their  state  of  development  ?  Why  are 
Irish  manufactures  in  a  backward  condition  ? 
In  what  industry  is  Ireland  the  le.ading  country  ? 
AVhat  other  industry  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance ?  Give  some  account  of  the  commercial 
interests  of  Belfast, — of  Dublin, — of  Cork, — 
of  Limerick, — of  Balbriggan.  What  is  the 
largest  river  in  Ireland?  What  can  you  say  of 
Irish  canals  and  railways  ? 


rV.  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  ASIA.  — The  possessions  of  Great  Britain  in 
Asia  consist  of  India.  Ceylon,  Hon^'  Kong,  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  Aden. 

The  Indian  Empire.  — The  peninsula  between  the  Arabian  Sea  ou  the  west  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east,  and  the  province  of  Bnnnah  wliich  extends  west  and 
north  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  constitutes  British  India.  It  comprises  several  prov- 
inces and  many  native  states,  with  a  total  area  about  one-quarter  that  of  the  United 
States  and  a  population  four  times  as  great.    The  Himalaya  Mountains  on  the  north  are 


COMMi:nciAL    CIIDCIIAI'IIY  91 

impassable  except  throu;,'li  a  fi-w  narrow  dciiles.  Td  the  westward  is  tlio  Indus 
Kiver,  wliich,  for  1,800  miles,  tlows  through  a  valley  of  great  fertility.  Owing  to 
bars  and  other  obstructions,  the  river  is  not  navigable.  At  the  east  are  the  Ganges 
and  the  Bramaputra  rivers,  which  unite,  their  mouths  forming  the  "great  delta  of 
the  Ganges."  These  rivers  flow  southeastwardly  through  very  fertile  valleys.  The 
Ganges  is  1,500  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  two-thirds  of  the  distance.  The 
Bramaputra  is  an  important  highway  of  commerce.  In  the  latter  part  of  its  course 
it  is  several  miles  wide.  The  Irawaddy  River  in  Burmah  is  navigable  for  700  miles 
from  the  sea.  Back  from  the  rivers  and  their  valleys  the  highlands  are  generally 
sterile,  and  a  tenth  part  of  the  cultivated  area  is  said  to  depend  upon  irrigation. 

Under  English  influence  India  has  developed  wonderfully,  and  become  of  great 
importance  to  the  commercial  world,  both  as  a  producer  and  consumer.  Since  1840 
the  imports  have  increased  nine-fold,  and  the  exports  seven-fold ;  but  commerce  is 
under  English  control,  and  the  country  has  not  the  trade  value  to  the  United  States, 
either  present  or  prospective,  that  China,  Japan,  and  other  countries  have.  By  a  good 
railway  system  the  producing  centres  of  India  have  been  brought  into  close  com- 
munication, and  many  sections,  distant  from  the  coast,  can  thus  dispose  of  their 
products  to  advantage. 

The  climate  is  tropical,  and  a  great  variety  of  crops  is  raised.  These  are 
chiefly  millet,  rice,  indigo,  wheat,  tea,  poppies,  cotton,  jute,  linseed  and  various 
other  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco.  Fruits,  spices,  perfumes,  drugs,  and  dyes 
are  other  products.  Valuable  minerals  abound,  although  the  country  is  essentially 
agricultural.  Rice,  which  is  raised  chiefly  in  the  plains  of  the  Ganges,  is  the  food 
of  a  third  of  the  population.  Wheat  and  cotton  are  grown  in  the  central  and 
northwestern  parts;  tea  in  the  northeast ;  tobacco,  a  rapidly  increasing  crop,  in  the 
rich  bottom  lands;  and  the  opium  poppy  in  the  Ganges  valley.  The  sale  of  opium 
is  a  government  monopoly.  Much  of  the  hillside  country,  nearly  one-twelfth  of  the 
whole  area,  is  covered  with  forest  and  jungle,  and  the  cutting  of  timber  is  regulated 
by  the  government.  Teak,  a  wood  highly  valued  in  ship-building,  is  most  in  demand. 
Cashmere,  one  of  the  most  northern  provinces,  is  famous  for  its  shawls,  made  from 
the  wool  of  the  Thibet  goat.  But  the  French  and  other  manufactures  have  so 
closely  imitated  these  shawls  that  the  industry  is  declining,  and  silk-manufacture  is 
taking  its  place. 

In  1899  the  commerce  of  India  was  valued  at  about  $600,000,000,  two-thirds 
of  it  being  exports.  About  one-third  of  the  exports  and  more  than  half  of  the 
imports  were  with  Great  Britain,  by  way  of  the  Suez  canal.'  Of  India's  total  trade 
the  United  States  furnished  less  than  two  per  cent,  of  the  imports  (almost  solely 

1  The  chief  exports  from  India  in  1890  were  rior,  wliral,  and  s.fil-;  to  the  v.iluo  nf  SI  1-.>.1  li'.nno  ; 

cotton  and  cotton  goods,  §56.031,000;  opium,  8-M, 'J ii«„rih,r  unh   lc,i.    hiilr.   ,ui.l   -kins. 

jute,  indigo,  coffee,  wool,  lac,  wood,  and  .silk.     In  tlir  laininr  m  n,    is'.i'.i,  iln'  i\|h,ii   ^i    i |   ii.,m 

India  larL'i'ly  inorcascrl.     Imports  were,  cotton  gooil.s  to  tla    vaiih    ^il  smi.ooo.ooo;  maiiiii  i^  im.  -  ^i 

iron  ami  si.rl,  -nvar,  i.ils,  railway  material  and  cars,  liii""'-.  \v""ll'  ii  '^ I-.  ih^mmmh-.  \Mariiiu' 

apparel,  an. I  rlhaiihals.  in  the  order  of  value.  There  is  also  a  lai-r  ir,iiiiirr  iia.lr  li\  rai.nan  and 
otherwisr.  I'liriras  nf  nortlieasterii  India  and  Ceylon  have  almost  Liitinly  siiinisukil  ili.i>,.  nf 
China  and  Jaiiaii  in  the  British  maiket. 


92  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

kerosene),  and  purchased  only  about  four  per  cent,  of  the  exports.  Of  great 
interest  to  the  United  States  is  the  rapid  increase  in  the  export  of  wheat  from  India. 
She  is  already  near  to  us  in  the  quantity  of  her  crop,  and  her  competition  is  closely 
felt.'  Her  manufactures  in  the  coarser  grades  of  cotton  cloth  are  also  competing  in 
the  Chinese,  East  African,  and  other  markets. 

India  has  many  large  cities,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are  of  commercial  impor- 
tance, and  with  9,000  miles  of  seacoast  there  are  very  few  good  harbors. 

Calcutta,  the  capital,  has  a  large  fraction  of  the  trade  of  the  empire.  It  is  on 
the  Hiu);_;ly  River,  a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  eighty -six  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
population  is  nearly  one  million.  The  harbor  extends  up  and  down  the  river  for  ten 
miles,  and  is  an  expensive  one  to  maintain,  owing  to  the  shifting  sands.  Calcutta 
carries  on  a  large  export-trade  in  cotton  and  cotton  fabrics,  grain,  hides,  indigo,  jute, 
opium,  tobacco,  tea,  and  cinchona.  Patna,  farther  up  the  Ganges,  is  the  centre  of 
opium-raising,  but  most  of  the  exporting  is  through  Calcutta.  Amritsar,  in  the 
extreme  northwestern  part,  among  the  mountains,  is  the  centre  of  the  Cashmere- 
shawl  manufacturing  and  trade. 

Bombay,  on  the  western  coast,  has  the  finest  harbor  of  India,  and  is  the  nearest 
port  to  Europe.  Its  jiopulation  is  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  Calcutta,  and  it  has 
quite  outstripped  the  capital  as  a  commercial  centre  since  the  building  of  railroad 
connections  with  the  interior.  Considerable  ship-building  is  done,  and  it  is  the  centre 
of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth.  Its  growth  began  at  the  time  of  our  own  short 
cotton  ciop,  during  the  civil  war,  and  its  prosperity  has  been  based  chiefly  on  cotton 
and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics.  It  is  also  the  outlet  for  the  rich  Punjab  and 
other  wheat-producing  sections.  Calicut,  a  small  city  on  the  coast,  south  of  Bombay, 
is  said  to  be  the  city  where  calico  was  tirst  made,  —  hence  the  name  of  the  fabric. 
Madras,  on  the  east  coast,  is  the  third  commercial  town  of  India,  and  has  a  good 
harbor,  recently  constructed.  Rangoon,  on  the  delta  of  the  Irawaddy,  is  the  chief 
harbor  of  British  Burmah  :  ^  it  exports  rice  and  teak. 

Ceylon.  —  The  island  of  Ceylon,  situated  just  off  the  south-eastern  extremity 
of  the  Indian  peninsula,  has  an  area  about  half  that  of  Alabama,  and  a  population 
equal  to  that  of  Switzerland.  Since  a  very  remote  period  the  island  has  been 
in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  and  the  system  of  irrigation  upon  which  its  crops 
have  depended  is  still  being  improved  and  extended,  so  that  each  year  makes  the 
island  more  fruitful.  The  products  are  very  numerous,  but  coffee  is  the  most 
important.  Cinchona  bark,  cocoa,  tea,  spices,  copperas,  plumbago,  and  tobacco 
are  other  exports.      Of  these  the  United  States  takes  three-fourths   of   the   plum- 

1  India  raises  nearly  one  busliel  of  wlieat  per  head  of  tlie  population,  the  United  States  seven 
bushels  per  liead.  The  people  of  India  require  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  their  wheat  product 
for  food  and  seed.  Their  home  consumption  of  wheat  is  said  to  increase  every  year,  while  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  after  appropriating  five  bushels  per  capita,  have  a  surplus  for  export 
equal  to  one-half  the  entire  crop  of  India. 

2  The  finest  ruby-mines  in  the  world  are  in  Burmah,  and  amber  is  found  in  large  quantities. 
Crude  petroleum  is  also  produced.  Cotton,  hides,  tea,  and  spices  are  important  exports.  The 
fisheries  are  the  most  valuable  in  southern  Asia. 


COMMEHrlAl.    (,i:o(;/!AJ-jn'  93 

bago  and  coroa.  In  iiianufactures  the  people  ai-c  skilful,  especially  in  working 
gold,  silver,  ivory,  and  tortoise-shell,  and  in  wood-carving.  The  pearl-iisheries  of  the 
island  are  at  times  of  considerable  value.  TvincomaU,  on  the  east  coast,  has  one 
of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world,  and  is  the  depot  of  the  British  navy  in  the  East 
Indie.s;  but  Colombo  is  the  capital  and  chief  commercial  town. 

Hong  Kong. — Hong  Kong  is  the  fourth  port  in  the  world  in  the  amount  of 
sliijiping  that  passes  through  its  waters.  It  is  situated  on  Victoria  Island, 
lying  off  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  River.  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  an  impor- 
tant coaling-station.  Direct  steamship  communication  is  carried  on  with  India, 
Australia,  the  United  States,  and  the  principal  commercial  centres  of  Europe.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  banking-interests  of  the  East,  and  practically  controls  the  sea- 
going trade  of  China  —  the  exports  of  tea  and  silks,  and  the  imports  of  textile 
fabrics,  iron  manufactures,  opium,  and  other  articles.  Its  growth  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  fact  that  a  commercial  centre  was  needed  where  goods  could  be  safely  stored; 
and,  prior  to  the  cession  of  Hong  Kong  to  Great  Britain,  China  had  never  furnished 
such  a  port.  The  city  has  grown  into  commercial  importance,  and  its  steamship 
trade  has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal.  Hong  Kong  is 
a  coal  centre  at  which  50,000  tons  are  distributed  monthly,  and  if  the  coal  of  Ton- 
quin  can  be  sold  cheaply  in  Hong  Kong  the  latter  will  become  a  manufacturing 
centre.  The  introduction  of  railways  into  China,  which  is  on  the  eve  of  accomplish- 
nu'ut.  will  greatly  increase  the  trade  of  this  port. 

The  Straits  Settlements.  — The  Straits  Settlements  compri.se  a  number  of  trading 
stations  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  on  the  ocean  trade-route  to  China.  The  important 
port  of  Singapore,  the  small  territory  of  Malacca,  the  island  of  Penang,  and  a  small 
part  of  the  mainland  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  are  the  commercially  important  parts 
of  this  colony. 

Singapore  is  situated  on  a  small  island  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malay 
peninsula.  From  its  position  it  commands  the  straits,  and  it  is  an  important  coaling- 
station.  The  products  of  the  neighboring  islands  are  collected  and  distributed  '  from 
Singapore;  and  the  great  commercial  importance  of  this  port  may  be  seen  in  the 
fact  that  its  total  commerce  aggregates  an  annual  value  of  $200,000,000.''  The  chief 
items  of  this  commerce  are  tin  (exported),  rice  (imported),  spices,  opium,  cotton 
goods,  gambler,  fish,  gums,  tapioca,  rattans,  and  tobacco. 

Aden,  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  near  the  Strait  of  l!:ib-el-]\Iandeb,  possesses 
an  admirable  natural  harbor,  and  has  at  different  periods  been  of  great  importance  in 
the  trade  between  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.     Since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal 

1  The  trade  of  ports  like  Singapore  is  of  llnee  kinds,  — panxing,  transit,  actual ;  passing, com- 
prising goods  in  vessels  going  through  Singapore  for  China  or  elsewhere;  tiansit  trade, goods  that 
are  landed  and  re-shipped  for  other  points;  actual  trade, goods  brought  for  sale  into  Singapore,  and 
either  consumed  there,  or  sold  to  other  places  wliitlKT  they  are  said  to  be  exported. 

2  In  1898  England  exported  to  the  Straits  Sitil.  nx  iii<  -  .u.N  to  the  value  of  nearly  $.32,000,000, 
principally  cotton  goods,  iron,  and  machinery.  Hi  i  in]  1 1  il  -nneyear  were  over  S2H, 000.000,  of 
■which  amount  tin  made  one-half,  the  other  importam  in m^  1" mi;  spices,  gambler,  and  India  rubber, 
in  the  order  of  their  value. 


94 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


its  importance  has  greatly  increased,  especially  as  a  coaling-station.  Except  for  its 
commanding  position  as  a  station  upon  a  great  trade-route,  Aden  is  of  no  commercial 
consequence. 


QUESTIONS 


Of  what  do  tlie  British  possessions  in  Asia 
consist?  How  does  the  area  of  the  Indian 
Empire  compare  with  that  of  tlie  United  States  ? 
How  does  its  population  compare  with  our  own  ? 
Give  some  account  of  the  physical  features  of 
India.  What  are  its  three  great  rivers  ?  Give 
a  description  of  each.  Wliat  can  you  say  of 
tlie  growth  of  Indian  commerce  ?  What  of  the 
importance  of  our  own  trade  with  India? 

What  is  the  climate,  and  what  are  the  prin- 
cipal products  of  India  ?  What  cereal  is  the 
chief  article  of  diet  of  the  people  ?  What  prod- 
uct is  a  government  monopoly  ?  What  is  the 
annual  value  of  the  commerce  ?  With  what 
country  is  the  greater  part  of  tlie  commerce 
carried  on  ?  What  is  our  own  share  of  Indian 
trade?  What  Indian  product  is  of  special 
interest  to  us  as  a  food-producing  nation  ? 


Locate  and  describe  Calcutta  and  its  exports, 
—  Patna,  —  Amritsar,  —  Hombay,  —  Calicut,  — 
Madias,  —  Rangoon.  What  is  the  situation  of 
Ceylon?  —  its  comparative  area?  —  its  popu- 
lation ?  What  product  is  most  important  ? 
What  other  products  are  largely  exported  ? 
What  other  products  are  mainly  taken  by  our 
own  importers  ?  What  can  you  say  of  Trin- 
coniali  ?  —  of  Colombo  ? 

AVliat  British  colony  is  a  Chinese  port  ? 
Describe  its  situation.  To  what  is  its  increas- 
ing commercial  importance  due  ?  What  are  the 
Straits  Settlements?  What  is  the  chief  city? 
What  are  the  principal  items  of  the  trade 
of  Singapore,  and  whence  are  they  derived  ? 
Describe  tlie  three  kinds  of  trade  of  ports  like 
Singapore.  Locate  Aden.  What  gives  it  com- 
mercial importance? 


v.- BRITISH   POSSESSIONS    IN  AUSTRALASIA 

The  Kritish  possessions  in  Australasia  consist  of  the  five  confederated  colonies 
of  Australia,  together  with  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Feejee  Islands.' 

AUSTRALIA.  —  Australia  is  the  smallest  of  the  six  great  Continents,  having  an 
area  three-fourths  that  of  Europe.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  a  level  plateau 
about  1,000  feet  high  with  an  abrupt  descent  near  the  coast.  Much  of  the  interior 
of  the  continent  is  arid  and  unproductive.  A  coast  plain  from  forty  to  three  hundred 
miles  wide  surrounds  almost  the  entire  continent.  The  Murray,  the  most  important 
river,  is  1600  miles  long,  but  is  too  shallow  for  navigation,  except  by  small  vessels. 


1  The  United  States  is  connected  with  Australasia  by  steamsliip  lines,  and  a  considerable 
commerce  is  carried  on  both  by  these  lines  and  by  sailing-vessels. 

The  largest  trade  of  Australasia  belongs  to  >'.\v  Smitli  Wnlrs.  nmnuntiii-  in  1898  to  alxiut 
$260,000,000,  Victoria  is  next,  with  more  than  §ir,tuiiiii.(iiiii.  :,ii,|  N,«  Z.  :il;iiiil  ilurd  with  more  than 
$03,000,000.      The  total  exports  of  the  Australiisi;iii  ml m    l^:ls  xNrir  -:;'.il, 1135,000 ;  and  of 


nnports.  ; 

■Cl.r 

were  s:;.:. 
ucts  lit  ii 
ments,  (I 
and  m:\\'- 
tine.  Wi 
tin. 


.f  tl. 


1-1,1  ill  \^'X<  wnv  $19,777,000.  Its  imports 
i\  imiiiiriMi-.  iiM  IihIiml:  machinery  and  other  prod- 
[>i  wiHid,  tiiliinin,  kiriiseiie  oil,  agricultural  imple- 
cars,  leather  and  its  products,  breadstuffs,  books 
and  stationery,  fruit,  liquors,  organs,  and  turpen- 
is,  wool,  textile  grasses,  hides  and  skins,  coal,  and 


co.MMEnciM.  <;i:o<;iiAi'iiy  95 

Tilt'  Darlin;;  ami  tlio  .Murruml)i(li;eo,  tributarios  of  the  Murray,  arp  tlio  only  other 
(.■oiisiilerable  rivers,  ami  these  also  are  of  little  value  to  iiavij^'alioii.  The  seacoast 
is  (juite  regular,  and  there  are  few  harbors.  In  proportion  to  their  population  the 
Australian  colonies  are  better  provided  with  railways  than  any  other  country  of 
the  world  except  the  United  States. 

Victoria,  the  smallest,  and  most  prosperous,  of  these  colonies,  is  situated  at  the 
southeastern  extremity.  It  is  mainly  mountainous,  and  is  the  chief  gold-mining 
region  of  the  continent.  The  northern  boundary  is  formed  by  Murray  River.  In 
other  parts  of  the  colony  agriculture  is,  to  a  considerable  extent,  dependent  upon 
irrigation.  The  colony  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  gold-mines,  which  were  discovered 
in  18.51,  and  which  have  yielded  gold  to  the  amount  of  $1,250,000,000.  For  many 
years  past  the  (mtput  has  been  slowly  increasing,  and  greater  attention  has  been 
devoted  til  auririilture,  grazing,  and  manufacturing. 

Mi'lhiiiinif.  tlie  capital  and  chief  seaport,  has  a  population  of  470,000.  Vessels 
of  medium  draught  can  lie  alongside  the  city  wharves.  It  is  the  shipping-point  of 
the  products  of  the  colony,  of  which  wool  is  the  most  important.'  Melbourne  and 
other  cities  are  fast  becoming  industrial  centres,  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
woollen  goods,  but  the  exporting  point  of  manufactures  has  not  yet  been  reached. 
!^^elbourne  is  connected  by  railway  with  various  parts  of  the  colony,  and  also  with 
the  adjoining  colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  South  Australia. 

New  South  Wales,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  continent,  north  of  'N'ictoria,  is  next 
to  the  latter  in  importance.  It  is  the  oldest  of  the  colonies,  having  been  established 
a  century  ago  as  a  penal  colony.  Sheei>raising  was  attempted  early  in  its  history, 
and  has  become  the  most  important  industry.  The  mineral  resources  of  the  colony, 
mainly  gold  and  coal,  were  developed  at  the  same  time  that  the  gold-fields  in 
Metoria  were  opened.  More  recently  tin  has  been  found,  and  the  mining  product  is 
now  next  in .  value  to  that  of  wool.  The  surface  of  the  country  includes  fertile 
plains,  grazing-lands,  forest  area,  and  mountain-regions,  —  hence  the  products  are 
varied.  Fruits,  sugar-cane,  and  the  cereals  are  largely  cultivated.  Sheep,  horses, 
and  other  domestic  animals  are  reared,  and  minerals  in  great  variety  are  mined.* 

Sydney,  the  capital  and  commercial  centre  of  New  South  Wales,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  3/50,000.  The  harbor  is  deep  and  capacious,  and  is  the  chief  naval  station  in 
Australasia  for  the  British  fleet.  With  an  abundance  of  coal,  Sydney  is  fast 
becoming  an  important  industrial  centre.  From  its  geographical  situation  it 
controls  the  commerce  of  the  South  Pacific,  and  it  is  connected  by  steamship  lines 
with  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  United  States. 

1  The  export  of  wool  for  1898  was  valued  at  over  $20,000,000,  most  of  it  from  A'ictoria, 
and  the  rest  transsliipped  from  adjoining  colonies.  The  estimated  value  of  the  gold  mined  in 
Victoria  in  1899  is  $17,000,000. 

2  In  1898  wool  to  the  value  of  nearly  $50,000,000  was  exported.  The  richest  coal-mines  of 
the  continent  are  here  ;  employing  in  1808  ten  tliousand  men.  The  silver  and  silver- lead  ore  product 
is  increasing ;  the  output  during  1898  being  nearly  equal  in  value  to  that  of  the  gold  product,  wliich 
had  a  value  of  §9,G»0,000. 


96  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Newcastle  lias  come  into  commercial  importance  from  its  coal,  which  is  shipped, 
not  only  to  all  parts  of  Australia,  but  to  San  Francisco,  Soutli  America,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  other  parts  of  the  Pacilic.  A  railway  system  connects  the  various  pro- 
ducing centres  of  the  colony. 

Queensland,  situated  north  of  New  South  Wales,  occupies  the  northeastern  part 
of  Australia.  It  has  a  dry  tropical  climate,  but  agriculture  is  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Fine,  hard  building-timber  is  abundant,  though  little  has  yet 
been  done  to  develop  it.  The  grazing  interests  are  considerable,  and  large  areas  are 
devoted  to  sheep  and  cattle  raising.^  Coffee,  rice,  grain,  and  fruits  are  products 
which  are  rapidly  coming  into  greater  prominence. 

Brisbane,  the  capital,  exports  large  quantities  of  wool.  Railways  connect  the 
important  centres  with  one  another  and  with  the  system  of  New  South  Wales. 

South  Australia  adjoins  the  western  boundaries  of  Victoria  and  New  South 
Wales.  It  comprises  much  of  the  arid  region  of  the  continent,  and  the  only  portion 
inhabited  is  along  the  coast.  It  is  essentially  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  colony. 
Wheat  is  the  chief  crop,  though  only  six  or  eight  bushels  are  raised  upon  an  acre  of 
land.  Other  grains  are  grown,  and  flax  and  hops  are  receiving  special  attention. 
Fruit  and  vine  culture  are  becoming  very  thriving  industries.  Most  of  the  crops  are 
dependent  upon  irrigation.  Copper  is  the  only  metal  mined  to  any  extent.  As  in 
the  other  colonies,  wool-growing  is  the  most  profitable  business.'^ 

Adelaide,  with  a  population  of  130,000,  is  the  capital,  and  the  only  city  of 
commercial  importance.     It  is   connected  by  rail  with   Victoria. 

North  Australia  lies  west  of  Queensland,  and  borders  the  north  coast  of  the 
continent.  It  is  an  arid  region,  apparently  incapable,  without  irrigation,  of  sup- 
porting any  considerable  population.     It  is  attached  politically  to  South  Australia. 

Western  Australia  comprises  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  continent.  Only  the 
southwestern  corner  of  it  is  inhabited,  though  the  northwest  contains  iine  grazing- 
lands.  Much  of  the  interior  is  sandy.  Gold-mining  and  wool-growing  are  important 
industries.  Gold  was  produced  in  1898  to  the  value  of  nearly  $20,000,000,  and  wool 
exported  to  the  value  of  nearly  $1,500,000.  The  forest  area  is  large  and  the  timber 
valuable.  Sandalwood  and  jarrah,  a  wood  similar  to  the  California  red-wood,  are 
exported.  Jarrah  is  very  durable,  and  particularly  adapted  for  harbor,  railway,  and 
bridge  work.  The  mineral  deposits  that  have  been  found  include  large  gold-fields, 
iron,  lead,  copper,  and  zinc.  Silk-cuiture  has  been  recently  undertaken  with  success. 
Perth  is  the  capital,  and  Albany  is  the  principal  shipping-port. 

1  Tlie  wool  export  for  1898  was  over  $15,000,000,  followed  in  much  less  value  by  sugar,  frozen 
meats,  tin,  .silver,  tallow,  anil  pearl  shell.  JMiuing  is  a  most  important  industry,  the  gold  product  in 
the  same  year  reaching  $14,000,000. 

2  The  export  of  wool  was  nearly  $.",000,000  in  ISOS,  but  is  decreasing.  Wheat  flour  and 
copper  are  important  exports. 


COMMEnciAL   aEOdllAl'lIY  97 

TASMANIA,  formerly  called  Van  Dieiuen's  Land,  is  an  island  about  the  size  of 
the  state  uf  West  Virginia,  lying  oi^'  the  southeast  coast  of  Australia.  To  a  consider- 
able extent  the  surface  is  mountainous  and  forest-covered,  but  the  island  is  agricultur- 
ally rich  and  yields  large  quantities  of  hops  and  fruits.  The  climate  is  equable  and 
healthful.  Grazing  is  a  leading  industry,  and  Tasmaniau  wool  is  of  the  finest  quality.' 
The  forest  areas  afford  fine  woods  in  variety ;  there  are  extensive  deposits  of  coal, 
tin,  and  building-stone  ;  and  gold  is  mined  in  several  places.  Silk-culture  promises 
to  become  an  important  industry.  Apart  from  its  trade  with  neighboring  colonies, 
nearly  all  the  commerce  of  Tasmania  is  with  Great  Britain.  Launceston,  an  impor- 
tant northern  port,  is  connected  by  rail  with  Hobart,  the  capital  and  commercial 
centre.  The  latter  city  is  the  chief  seaport,  and  has  a  fine  harbor  on  the  south  coast. 
Both  cities  have  steamship  connection  with  Melbourne  and  Sydney,  and  maintain 
considiTable  local  industries,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  fabrics. 

NEW  ZEALAND  is  the  name  given  to  three  islands  1,200  miles  southeast  of 
Australia.  Their  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Oregon.  The  surface  is  generally 
mountainous,  but  two-thirds  of  the  country  is  adapted  to  agriculture  and  grazing. 
The  climate  of  New  Zealand  is  very  salubrious,  and  a  variety  of  crops  and  fruits 
are  raised.  The  forests  are  extensive,  and  contain  many  valuable  kinds  of  woods, 
particularly  the  Kauri  pine,  much  valued  for  shipbuilding.^  The  pastoral  interests 
are  the  most  important,  though  mining  is  quite  extensively  pursued.  Auckland,  the 
chief  industrial  and  commercial  town,  lias  a  fine  harbor.  Steamers  connect  with 
Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  San  Francisco.  Russell  is  a  whaling-station.  Wellington, 
the  capital,  contains  woollen  mills,  and  extensive  meat-preserving  establishments. 
All  these  places  are  situated  on  North  Island.  On  South  Island,  Dunedin,  the 
largest  commercial  town  of  the  colony,  has  manufactories  of  woollen  goods  and 
machinery.     Lyttleton  and  Greymouth  are  the  other  considerable  towns.' 

THE  FEEJEE  ISLANDS,  situated  about  1,200  miles  east  of  Australia,  comprise 
several  hundred  islands  of  which  eighty  are  inhabited.  Viti  Levu  and  Vanua  Levu 
are  the  largest  and  most  important.  The  larger  islands  are  rugged  and  volcanic, 
and  are  susceptible  of  cultivation  only  along  the  narrow  coast  ]ilains.  Sugar, 
cotton,  and  tropical  fruits  are  the  chief  exports,  and  these  go  mainly  to  British 
markets.     Suva  is  the  capital  and  only  important  port. 

'  111  1898  the  most  important  exports  were  :  wool,  $1,274,000  ;  gold,  .$8.38,000 ;  together  with 
silver  and  silver  ore,  tin,  timber  and  bark,  hop.s  and  fruit,  to  a  total  value  of  $9,015,000. 

2  The  gum  of  this  tree,  Kauri  gum,  is  extensively  used  in  making  varnish.  Sometimes  very 
large  pieces,  a  hundred-weight  or  more,  of  transparent  and  almost  colorless  gum,  are  found  near  the 
decayed  roots  of  a  tree.  Tliis  brings  a  high  price,  and  is  used  for  making  ornaments.  It  is  easily 
worked  with  a  knife  into  any  shape,  and  is  polished  with  a  soft  rag  and  kero.sene  oil.  Large  masses 
of  gum  are  sometimes  found  exuding  from  the  living  tree,  but  this  is  less  valuable  than  the  fossil 
gum.  Three  or  four  thousand  men  are  engaged  in  digging  the  latter,  wliich  is  found  on  North  Island 
only.  A  fossil  gum  of  dark  color  is  also  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  coal  deposits.  This 
fact  shows  the  antiquity  of  the  kauri  forests. 

s  In  1898  New  Zealand  exported  wool  to  the  value  of  S2.<5,0OO,OO0  ;  frozen  meat.  §8.000,000  ; 
gold,  5.">,400,000 ;  Kauri  gum.  §-2,900,000  ;  butter  and  cheese,  §2,000,000  ;  together  with  hides,  tallow, 
grain,  and  New  Zealand  hemp  or  phurmium,  to  the  total  amount  of  §02,UOO,UUO. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


QUESTIONS 


What  British  colonies  compose  the  geographi- 
cal division  of  Australasia  ?  Describe  Australia. 
Wliat  are  its  chief  rivers  ?  What  can  you  say 
of  their  commercial  importance  ?  What  is  the 
condition  of  Australian  railways  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  surface  of  the  colony 
of  Victoria?  To  what  did  Victoria  owe  its  first 
prosperity  ?  What  industry  is  now  increasing 
in  relative  importance  ?  Describe  Melbourne 
and  its  industries.  Give  the  situation  of  New 
South  Wales.  What  can  you  say  of  its  in- 
dustries ?  —  mineral  resources  ?  —  agriculture  ? 
Locate  and  describe  Sydney,  —  Newcastle. 

Where  is  Queensland  ?  What  are  its  chief 
industrial  interests  ?     What  is  the  principal  ex- 


port of  Brisbane  ?  Where  is  South  Australia  1 
What  is  its  chief  agricultural  product  ?  What 
business  is  most  profitable  ?  Locate  Western 
Australia.  What  is  the  leading  industry  ?  What 
are  the  mineral  products  ? 

Describe  Tasmania  and  its  situation.  What 
is  the  leading  industry?  What  are  the  chief 
mineral  products  ?  Describe  Launceston,  —  Ho- 
bart.  Where  is  New  Zealand  ?  Give  an  account 
of  its  area,  climate,  and  productions.  Describe 
the  Kauri  gum,  its  origin  and  use.  What  can 
you  say  of  Auckland?  — of  Russell,  — of  Well- 
ington ?  —  of  Dunedin  ?  —  of  Lyttleton  and 
Greymouth  ?  Which  of  these  towns  are  ou 
North  Island?  — on  South  Island? 


VI. -BRITISH    POSSESSIONS    IN    AMERICA 

The  British  American  possessions  include  nearly  one-half  the  area  of  North 
America  and  a  small  part  of  South  America.  They  comprise  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  and  Newfoundland,  a  large  number  of  the  West  Indies,  a  part  of  Guiana, 
and  a  few  islands  south  of  South  America. 

THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND.  —  The  Dominion  of 
Canada  iin-linlfs  thi-  jirovinces  of  Ontario.  Qut-brc,  New  lirunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  Manitoba,  Nortlieast  and  Nortliwest  Territories,  British 
Columbia,  and  the  districts  of  Keewatin  and  Athabasca.  The  island  of  Newfound- 
land is  a  geographical,  but  not  a  political,  part  of  the  Dominion. 

The  total  area  of  the  British  possessions  in  North  America  is  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  United  States,  including  Alaska,  but  the  population  is  only  one-fifteenth 
as  large.     The  products  are  those  of  a  rigorous  climate. 

The  lumber  regions  of  the  Dominion  are  in  widely  separated  sections  of  the 
country,  one  in  the  vicinity  of  Hudson  Bay,  in  the  east;  the  other  in  British 
Columbia,  on  the  west.  The  Canadian  export  of  lumber  is  about  equal  to  that  of 
the  United  States.  Coal  is  abundant  on  both  coasts,  and  the  fisheries  are  among  the 
most  important  in  the  world.  The  Canadian  trade  in  agricultural  products  is  con- 
stantly increasing.  The  registered  sliipping  includes  6500  vessels,  and  there  are 
17,000  miles  of  railway,  chiefly  in  the  eastern  provinces.  Jlanufactures  have  been 
fostered  by  protective  tariffs;  and  there  is  now  a  vast  number  of  establishments 
engaged  in  making  machinery  and  other  products  of  iron,  leather  goods,  and 
wooden-ware.  The  Dominion  is  becoming  more  and  more  important  as  a  factor  in 
the  commerce  of  the  world.' 


'  The  commerce  of  Canada  is  chiefly  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
export  and  import  trade  is  with  the  United  States.     The  export  statistics  for  1S!>8  pla 


Half  the 

1'  animals 


(  oMMi:i;(iA/.  (nuiuiiM'iiY  oa 

Stroiii^  indaopinputs  are  offered  to  immigrants  by  the  government  of  Panada; 
yet  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  hirge  numbers  have  been  led  to  settle  upon  public  lands, 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  move  across  our  border.  Manitoba  has  suffered  much 
in  this  way.  The  native  population  is  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  emigration,  and  it 
is  estimated  tliat  at  least  a  million  Canadians,  chiefly  of  French  descent,  have  moved 
into  states  adjoining  the  border.  Land  along  the  Canadian  line  often  brings  about 
half  the  price  of  adjoining  land  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States.' 

British  Columbia,  in  the  extreme  west,  is  mountainous.  The  products  are 
chiefly  lumber  and  minerals.  Some  of  the  best  coal-mines  on  the  I'acific  coast 
are  on  Vancouver  Island.  The  fisheries  of  the  Pacific  are  growing  in  value  yearly, 
and  are  chiefly  of  cod  and  salmon.  Victoria,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  Vancouver 
Islan^l.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Xanaimo,  the  great  coal-producing  centre. 
Coal  and  lumber  are  sent  chiefly  to  South  America,  Asia,  and  Australia.  Victoria  is 
a  British  naval  station  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Canadian  fishing  interests  in  the 
Pacific.  By  the  increase  of  traffic  over  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  it  is  attain- 
ing considerable  commercial  importance.  Vancouver,  the  terminus  of  the  (Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  is  a  port  on  the  Georgia  Straits,  having  direct  steamship  coniiictidu 
with  China  and  Japan,  and  the  coast  cities  of  British  Columbia,  the  lniiiil  Stuii's, 
and  Alaska;  and  is  the  shipping  port  for  the  product  of  the  mines  and  Imcsts  nf  the 
interior  of  British  Columbia. 

Manitoba,  in  the  great  central  plain,  contains  most  excellent  wheat-lands,  and 
wheat  is  its  staple  crop.  It  is  north  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota,  and  is  connected 
with  the  railway  system  of  the  United  States.  The  Red  River  of  the  North,  the 
chief  waterway  of  the  province,  communicates,  through  Lake  Winnipeg  and  other 
large  lakes,  with  the  Saskatchewan  River  and  Hudson  Bay.     Together  they  furnish 

and  animal  products  first  in  point  of  value,  a^icultural  products  second,  manufactures  third, 
products  of  the  mines  fourth,  and  fishery  products  fifth. 

In  1898  the  total  exports  c.f  Canada  were  over  ai04, 0(10,000,  of  which  nearly  $105,000,000  went 

to  the   I'liiti.l    Kiimd :iu.l  ..v,r  .'j4.".,i«ii).(iiio  t..  ilii-  liiit.-.l  States.     In  the  same  year  the  total 

imports  Ml   (;,,,;, .|:i  ».,,    ,l^,|   .s|:;u. i.uihi,  ,.i  ^^\•u^ iv  il,:,„  s78,000,00O  came  from  the  United 

States  a  in  1  s:;_'..'.iiii.(iiiii  ii>.iii  iiir  I'liiicil  l\iim.|Miii.  'llir  inul  ,-niiiinerce  of  Canada  with  the  United 
Kingdom  is  .■si;;i,UUll.ooo  and  uilh  tlie  I  niti  ,1  Miir,.  si  17. Duo, ). 

The  United  States  buys  from  Cana^la  .  lniMl.n  ;,im1  iis  manufacture.s,  breadstuffs,  cattle  and 
horses,  coal,  hay,  beans,  pease,  and  iK.iai..,  rla^^d  as  vr;,'i'tables,  fruits,  flax,  tobacco,  etc. 
Canada  buys  from  the  United  States :  cual,  linail.stulTs,  iron  and  steel,  coUon  goods,  wood  and  its 
manufactures,  provisions,  dairy  products,  chemicals,  drugs,  india-rubber  goods,  mineral  oils,  various 
manufactures. 

1  These  facts  are  largely  due  to  the  anomalous  political  status  of  the  Dominion,  which,  though 
a  British  possession,  is  not  so  closely  affiliated  with  the  mother  country  as  she  should  be  for  the  full 
development  of  her  resources.  The  stimulus  to  commercial  activities  that  independence  of  Great 
Britain  would  give  are  lacking,  Canada  is  yearly  becoming  more  American,  and  a-s  imperial  inter- 
ference in  colonial  affairs  is  even  now  looked  upon  with  resentment,  this  feeling  may  eventually 
grow  till  nothing  short  of  independence  will  be  accepted  by  the  Canadian  people. 


100  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

more  tliaii  2,000  miles  of  inland  navigation  through  one  of  the  most  fertile  sections 
of  the  continent.  Winnipeg,  the  capital,  is  the  most  important  city.  It  commands 
the  traffic  of  the  great  wlieat  regions  of  the  central  plain,  and  ships  wheat  by  rail, 
both  eastward  for  trans-shipment  at  Montreal,  and  southward  over  the  border  into 
the  United  States. 

Northwest  Territory  and  Athabasca  are  situated  between  ]\Ianitoba  and  British 
Columbia.  The  former  is  largely  unexplored,  but  is  known  to  contain  vast  areas  of 
arable  laud.  It  is  estimated  that  the  land  in  these  divisions  suited  to  wheat-growing 
aggregates  an  area  five  times  that  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  that  other  areas 
suitable  to  the  cultivation  of  root-crops  are  nearly  as  extensive.  Except  upon  the 
line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  the  growth  of  pojiulation,  however,  is  extremely 
slow,  owing  mainly  to  the  great  distance  from  markets  for  products.  The  forest 
tracts  embrace  one  of  the  greatest  fur-producing  districts  in  the  world,  and  supply 
three-fourths  of  the  furs  sold  in  London  and  Leipsic.  The  mineral  regions  of  this 
territory  contain  coal,  gold,  iron,  and  petroleum.  The  coal  deposits  found  near  some 
of  the  railway  lines  are  being  fast  developed  to  supply  the  interior  towns,  particu- 
larly of  Manitoba.     The  other  mineral  districts  are  remote  from  the  railways. 

Ontario  has  an  irregular  surface.  In  the  northern  part  are  forests  and  mines  ; 
while  in  the  southern  part,  particularly  in  the  peninsula  between  lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario,  are  rich  farming-lands.  The  latter  region  is  called  the  "Garden  of 
Canada."  Much  attention  is  given  to  dairy  products ;  and  butter,  cheese,  and  eggs 
are  extensively  exported  to  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  Ontario  carries 
on  much  of  the  manufactures  of  the  Dominion.  Ottawa  is  the  seat  of  the  Dominion 
government.  It  is  more  an  educational  than  an  industrial  centre,  though  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  considerable  manufacturing  of  wood  is  done.  The  more  impor- 
tant commercial  and  industrial  centres  are  HamUtoii  and  Toronto  on  Lake  Ontario, 
and  Kingston  at  the  junction  of  this  lake  with  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  A  great 
part  of  the  trade  between  the  Dominion  and  the  United  States  is  conducted  through 
these  ports. 

Quebec  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a  thin  soil.  Oats,  potatoes,  and  hay  are  the 
principal  crops,  and  maple-sugar  is  made  in  large  quantities.  The  principal  minerals 
are  copper  and  iron.  Ship-building  and  the  fisheries  are  important,  but  lumbering 
is  the  leading  pursuit.  The  great  water  route  is  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  Grand 
Trunk  Railway,  with  a  branch  to  Portland,  Maine,  passes  through  the  chief  cities. 
In  winter,  owing  to  the  closing  of  the  St.  Lawrence  by  ice,  communication  with  the 
ocean  is  mainly  through  the  United  States.  Montreal,  the  largest  city  in  the 
Dominion,  is  situated  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  the  head  of  ocean  navigation ; 
and  though  a  thousand  miles  distant  from  the  Atlantic,  it  controls  much  of  the 
foreign  commerce  of  the  Dominion.  It  is  connected  bj"^  waterway  or  railwaj'  with 
the  great  producing  centres.  The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  flour,  lumber,  and  dairy 
products.  Much  of  the  flour  for  export  is  milled  in  the  city.  Other  considerable 
industries  are  cloth-making  and  sugar-refiniiig.      It  is  the  third  city  iu  importance 


COMMEllCIAL   GKOGUAl'HY  lOl 

in  the  St.  Lawrence  valley,  Cliicajjo  beiujj;  first  and  lUiffalo  second.  The  city  of 
Quebec,  150  wiles  nearer  the  sea  than  Montreal,  has  a  large  export  traile  in  lumber, 
but  its  import  trade  is  small. 

New  Brunswick  has  an  undulating  surface.  Its  fisheries  of  cod,  mackerel, 
herring,  salmon,  and  haddock  are  extensive,  and,  in  value,  rank  next  to  those  of 
Nova  Scotia.  But  commercially  its  great  wealth  is  in  its  forests,  which  furnish 
a  large  supply  of  lumber.  The  building  of  small  wooden  vessels  for  river  and  coast 
trade  is  a  prominent  industry.  A  considerable  commerce  is  carried  on  with  the 
United  States  and  South  America.  The  St.  John  Kiver  furnishes  navigation  for 
two  hundred  miles.  St.  John,  the  largest  city,  has  a  spacious  harbor,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  small  foreign  commerce.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  growing  cotton-manufacture. 
Frederictoii,  the  capital,  has  an  active  trade  with  the  interior. 

Nova  Scotia  has  many  good  harbors  and  a  large  commerce.  The  most  important 
natural  products  are  coal  and  iron.  Great  deposits  of  these  minerals  exist,  but  they 
are  not  fully  developed.  The  fisheries  provide  the  most  valuable  export.  Of  the 
sixty  thousand  men  employed  in  the  Dominion  fisheries,  one-third  live  in  Nova 
Scotia.  The  fish,  named  in  the  order  of  their  value,  are  cod,  lobsters,  herring, 
and  mackerel.  On  the  adjoining  island  of  Cape  Breton  are  rich  deposits  of  coal,  but 
fishing  is  the  main  industry  of  the  people.  Halifax,  on  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in 
North  America,  has  a  considerable  commerce.  The  chief  export  is  fish.  Other 
exports  are  lumber,  agricultural  and  dairy  products,  and  coal.  The  city  has  numer- 
ous industries,  but  it  imports  manufactured  goods  from  the  United  States  and 
England.  Halifax  is  the  only  port  of  the  Dominion  open  to  commerce  in  winter. 
The  completion  of  the  railway  connecting  it  with  Quebec  and  Montreal  has 
increased  its  trade. 

Prince  Edward  Island  is  the  smallest  province  of  the  Dominion.  Fishing  and 
lumbering  are,  next  to  agriculture,  the  leading  occupations.  The  exports  are 
cereals  and  dairy-products.     Charlottetown,  situated  on  a  fine  harbor,  is  the  capital. 

Newfoundland,  to  which  the  eastern  part  of  Labrador  is  colonially  attached,  lies 
off  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Its  fixed  population  is  very  small,  and  its 
industries  are  practically  limited  to  the  off-shore  fisheries,  fish-curing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cod-liver  oil.  The  food-supply  is  almost  wholly  imported."  Copper 
deposits  exist,  but  the  mining  product  is  small.  St.  Jo/ui's,  on  the  east  coast,  is 
a  great  fishing  centre,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Scotch  Arctic  whaling  and 
sealing  fiert. 

THE  BRITISH  WEST  INDIES.  — The  British  AYest  Indies  comprise  all  the 
insular  possessions  of  Great  Britain  situated  between  North  America  and  South 
America.  Old  Providence,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  near  the  terminus  of  the 
Nicaragua  canal,  and  British  Honduras,  are  included  among  these  possessions. 

1  The  total  e.xports  of  Newfoundland  in  1808  were  about  $5,000,000,  of  which  not  quite  one- 
tenth,  consi-sting  mainly  of  fish  and  copper  ore,  went  to  the  United  States.  The  imports  were  about 
the  same,  of  whicli  nearly  one-tliird  came  from  the  United  States. 


102  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Bahamas  are  a  group  of  600  islands  southeast  from  Florida  and  northeast 
from  Cuba.  Many  of  these  islands  are  mere  rocky  peaks  and  uninhabitable,  and 
only  twenty  of  them  are  of  any  consequence  commercially.  These  are  generally 
level,  of  coral  limestone  formation,  with  sandy  soil,  ^"assau,  on  the  island  of  New 
Providence,  is  the  capital.  Other  important  islands  of  this  group  are  San  Salvador, 
Graud  Bahama,  Long  Island,  Harbor  Island,  Great  Inagua,  and  the  Andros  Islands. 
The  Bahamas  profited  by  the  American  Revolution,  many  loyalists  settling  there 
after  the  colonies  gained  their  independence.  During  the  civil  war  in  America, 
Nassau  was  the  headquarters  for  blockade-runners,  and  was  for  a  time  a  place  of 
considerable  importance. 

The  products  of  these  islands,  irom  the  soil,  consist  of  oranges,  pineapples, 
tomatoes,  mahogany,  ebony,  satinwood,  and  preserved  fruits ;  from  the  sea,  sponges, 
turtle-shells,  and  salt.  Under  the  encouragement  of  the  government  the  cultivation 
of  sisal  hemp,  a  fibre  native  to  Yucatan,  is  increasing.  Hitherto  the  exportation 
of  sponges  has  been  the  leading  source  of  income  for  the  islands.  A  considerable 
profit  is  derived  from  American  tourists,  for  many  of  whom  these  islands  are  a  winter 
resort.  There  is  direct  steamship  communication  with  New  York.  The  population 
of  about  50,000  is  two-thirds  black.  San  Salvador  has  borne  the  reputation  of  being 
the  land  first  sighted  by  Columbus  on  his  voyage  of  discovery  in  1492. 

Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  and  St.  Lucia  are  the  most  important  islands  of  the 
"Windward  group.  Their  combined  population  is  150,000,  mostly  negroes  and 
coolies.  Cocoa  is  the  distinctive  export ;  though  sugar,  rum,  molasses,  cotton,  and 
coffee  are  also  raised  in  larger  quantities  than  home  consumption  demands.  Port 
Castries,  on  St.  Lucia,  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  West  Indies,  and  is  fast 
growing  in  importance. 

Trinidad,  ten  miles  from  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco 
River,  is  the  most  southerly  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  From  the  fortunate 
situation,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  varied  products,  and  the  evenness  of  the 
climate,  the  island  has  won  the  title  of  "  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles."  Fort  of  Spaiit 
is  the  capital  and  chief  centre  of  commerce.  The  principal  products  are  sugar, 
cocoa,  molasses,  rum,  cocoanuts,  timber,  fruits,  and  asphalt,  or  mineral  pitch.  On 
the  island  is  a  remarkable  asphalt  lake,  containing  a  vast  supply  of  this  material. 

The  Bermudas,  a  group  of  360  islands,  are  situated  six  hundred  miles  due  east 
of  North  Carolina.  Only  fifteen  of  them  are  habitable,  and  on  these  the  soil  is  thin. 
The  more  important  are  Bermuda,  St.  Georges.  Ireland,  Somerset,  and  St.  David's. 
There  are  no  fresh-water  streams,  and  the  wells  being  poor,  the  water  supply  is 
dependent  upon  the  fall  of  rain.  Hamilton,  the  seat  of  government,  is  on  Bermuda 
Island.     St.  Georr/e,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  has  a  fine  harbor. 

The  trade  of  the  Bermudas  consists  almost  wholly  of  the  export  of  garden 
vegetables  to  the  United  States.  The  cnief  income  of  the  people  is  derived  from 
the  onion  and  potato  crops.  Owing  to  the  mild  and  equable  climate,  the  Bermuda 
Islands  are  a  favorite  winter  resort  for  people  living  in  the  colder  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  -states. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPIIY  103 

Barbadoes,  tlio  most  easterly  ishuul  of  the  West  Indies,  is  about  2oO  miles 
iiortheast  I'roiu  Venezuela,  and  is  said  to  be  the  most  densely  populated  island  in  the 
-world.  The  surface  is  irregular,  but  the  soil  is  very  productive.  The  forests  have 
been  cut  away  so  that  all  the  available  land  may  be  devoted  to  the  one  staple  crop, 
—  sugar.  Even  tropical  fruits  have  disappeared  to  make  room  for  sugar-planting, 
and  the  island  is  now  dependent  upon  neighboring  islands  for  its  fruit  supply.  The 
consequence  of  this  one-crop  system  has  been  ruin  to  the  planters,  and  efforts 
are  being  made  to  vary  the  products  by  including  tobacco,  indigo,  and  arrowroot. 
Most  of  tlu!  sugar  is  exported  to  the  United  States.  An  adjunct  of  sugar-raising  is 
the  manufacture  of  rum  and  molasses.  Bridgetoivn,  the  seat  of  government,  has 
a  population  of  20,000,  and  is  a  very  important  commercial  port.  It  is  a  station  of 
the  West  Indies  and  Panama  Telegraph  Company,  the  headquarters  of  steamship 
lines  to  Europe  and  to  the  United  States,  and  a  port  of  call  for  merchant  ships  in 
general.  It  is  also  the  headquarters  of  the  British  forces  in  the  West  Indies.  The 
population  of  Barbadoes  Island  is  175,000,  about  one-tenth  of  whom  are  whites. 

Jamaica,  the  largest  and  perhaps  the  most  valuable  British  possession  in  the 
West  Indies,  is  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  100  miles  south  of  Cuba.  The  centre  of  the 
island  is  high  and  mountainous,  so  that  many  streams  descend  to  the  coast. 
The  soil  is  rich  and  very  productive.  Most  of  the  staple  tropical  products  are 
raised.  Among  the  exports  are  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  fruits,  coffee,  and  dyestuffs. 
The  population  of  the  island  is  over  half  a  million,  of  which  three-fourths  are 
negroes.  Many  Chinese  and  coolies  are  employed  on  the  plantations.  Though 
situated  five  hundred  miles  from  Jamaica,  Turk's  Island  and  the  neighboring  island 
•of  Caicos  are  eolonially  attached  to  the  former.  The  only  export  worthy  of  mention 
from  these  small  islands  is  salt.     Kingston  is  the  capital. 

The  Caribbean  Sea  is  separated  on  the  east  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  many 
■small  islands  called  the  Lesser  Antilles.  The  northern  group  is  called  the  Lee- 
ward, while  the  southern  is  known  as  the  Windward  Islands. 

Antigua  is  the  most  important  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  St.  Jolm's.  the  chief 
town  of  Antigua,  has  a  population  of  about  10,000.  The  products  of  these  islands 
are  principally  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  and  cotton. 

British  Honduras,  or  Balize,  is  situated  on  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
between  Yucatan  and  Guatemala.  The  country  is  not  developed,  and  the  population 
is  sparse.  The  chief  occupation  of  the  people  is  cutting  and  exporting  timber,  — 
chiefly  cedar,  mahogany,  and  rosewood.     Tropical  fruits  are  also  exported.^ 


1  The  total  commerce  of  the  British  \\v-.\  \w\w^  in  isjiS  «:!>  ii.:nl\  s'liijiiiii.iiiiii.  alnmst  equally 
divided  between  exports  and  imports.  NimiIv  ..h.  -IliIi  .ii  ihr  .  \p.iiK,  roii^i^im.;  ,,\  ,im,,i.  Iiaiianas, 
coSee,  cocoa,  spices,  dyewoods,  fruit.s  ami  iiui>.  :i~]ili;ili,  :iii<l  sii..ii_'^.  r..iii,^  i,,  ih.    Iiiitnl  States. 

Nearly  oue-third  of  the  imports,  coiisisiiug  lu.iinly  ot  bn:ad>tulls,  imal  (jrodiuis,  lumber,  dairy 
products,  kerosene  and  other  oils,  oil  cake  and  meal,  leather  goods,  live  animals,  together  with  a 
jgreat  variety  of  manufactured  goods,  comes  from  the  United  States. 


104 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


BRITISH  SOUTH  AMERICAN  POSSESSIONS.  — The  South  American  posses- 
sions of  Ciri'ut  Ih-itaiu  e'ousist  of  British  Guiana,  and  a  few  islands  in  the  South 
Atlantic. 

British  Guiana  includes  the  three  settlements  of  Denierara,  Essequibo,  and 
Berbice,  named  from  the  principal  rivers.  The  boundary  between  the  colony  and 
Venezuela  has  recently  been  settled.  The  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Colorado,  the 
population  sparse,  and  the  climate  unhealthful.  The  cultivated  part  of  the  country 
is  situated  along  the  seacoast  and  a  short  distance  up  the  rivers.  The  chief  product 
is  sugar,  of  which  the  variety  known  as  Demerara  crystal  is  the  iinest  in  the  world. 
Cotton  of  excellent  quality,  but  in  small  quantity,  is  grown.  Cocoanuts,  coffee,  rum, 
molasses,  and  butter  are  also  produced  and  exported.  Georgetown  is  the  capital 
and  port. 

About  2.")0  miles  east  of  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America  are  the 
Falkland  Islands.  The  colony  is  a  grazing  settlement,  and  whaling  and  sealing 
station.  Stanley,  the  only  harbor,  is  often  visited  for  repairs  and  supplies  by  vessels 
that  have  made  the  passage  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  only  important  exports 
are  wool,  mutton,  and  beef. 


QUESTIONS 


What  provinces  compose  tlie  Dominion  of 
Canada  ?  What  British  colony  forms  a  geo- 
grapliical,  though  not  a  political,  part  of  the 
Dominion  ?  Compare  Canada  with  the  United 
States  in  area  and  in  population.  How  does 
Canadian  export  of  lumber  compare  with  that  of 
the  United  States  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the 
Canadian  coal  deposits?  —  of  its  fisheries?  — 
agriculture  ?  —  trade  routes  ?  —  manufactures  ? 
What  great  movement  of  population  is  taking 
place  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  surface  of  British 
Columbia  ?  —  of  its  products  ?  Name  the  cap- 
ital. What  great  trade  route  has  its  western 
terminus  at  Vancouver?  Name  the  leading 
exports  of  Victoria. 

Where  is  Manitoba  ?  What  is  its  chief  prod- 
uct ?  What  can  you  say  of  its  waterways  ?  —  of 
its  railways  ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  is 
Its  principal  shipment  ? 

What  is  the  situation  of  Northwest  Territory  ? 
Give  some  account  of  its  natural  advantages  for 
production.  Why  are  not  these  more  fully 
developed?  What  is  the  leading  commercial 
product  at  the  present  time  ? 

Compare  the  northern  part  of  the  province  of 
Ontario  with  the  southern.  What  products 
does  Ontario  extensively  export?  What  can 
you  say  of   its   manufactures  ?     What   city  of 


Ontario  is  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  ?  What 
manufactures  are  most  important  in  or  near 
Ottawa  ?  Name  other  industrial  and  commer- 
cial centres  of  tliis  province. 

Name  the  chief  agricultural  products  of  the 
province  of  Quebec,  —  the  mineral  products. 
What  is  the  leading  pursuit  ?  What  great 
trunk  line  of  railway  connects  the  leading  cities 
of  this  province  ?  What  American  city  is  a 
winter  terminus  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  ? 
Locate  and  describe  Montreal.  Wliat  are  its 
main  exports  ?  —  its  industries  ?  Where  is  Que- 
bec ?    What  can  you  say  of  its  trade  ? 

Give  some  account  of  the  fisheries  of  New 
Brunswick.  In  wliat  does  the  commercial  wealth 
of  this  province  consist  ?  Name  and  locate  the 
principal  city.  — the  capital. 

What  are  the  most  important  natural  products 
of  Nova  Scotia  ?  What  is  the  leading  export  ? 
What  mineral  deposits  exist  on  Cape  Breton  ? 
What  is  the  exports  of  Halifax  ? 

What  are  the  exports  of  Prince  Edward 
Island  ?  What  occupations  other  than  agricul- 
ture are  considerably  followed  ?  What  can  you 
say  of  the  population  of  Newfoundland  ?  What 
important  place  on  the  east  coast  ? 

Describe  the  Bahama  Islands.  What  and 
where  is  the  capital  ?  What  are  the  principal 
products    of    the    soil?— of    the    surrounding 


CUMMKUCIA L   UEuaUAfll Y 


105 


waters  ?  What  has  been  the  leading  export  ? 
What  communication  is  tliere  with  New  Yoik  ? 

Wliere  are  llie  Bermudas  ?  Which  are  the 
more  important  islands  of  this  group?  Name 
tlie  Icadiii!;  towns.  With  what  country  is  nearly 
all  the  export  trade  of  the  Bermudas  carried  on  ? 
Of   what  does  this  trade  consist  ? 

Locate  and  describe  the  island  of  Barbadoes. 
What  is  the  staple  crop  ?  What  has  been  the 
result  of  the  exclusive  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  ? 
What  country  receives  most  of  the  export  of 
sugar  ?  What  other  industries  are  followed  ? 
Name  and  describe  the  colonial  capital. 

Where  is  the  island  of  Jamaica  ?  What  can 
you  say  of  its  soil  ?  —  of  its  productions  ?  —  of 
itscNports?  Of  what  nationalities  is  the  labor- 
ing class  ?    What  islands  are  colonially  attached 


to  Jamaica?  Wlial  is  the  leading  export  of 
Turk's  Island? 

Which  is  the  most  important  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  ?  What  are  the  chief  products  of  this 
group  ?  What  are  the  principal  Windward 
Islands  ?  What  is  the  main  export  ?  What 
growing  port  >ipon  St.  Lucia  Island  ? 

What  is  the  situation  of  Trinidad  ?  Name 
some  of  its  natural  advantai;es  for  production 
and  trade.  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  are 
the  more  important  products  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  island  of  Antigua?  Where  is  British  Hon- 
duras ?  What  are  the  principal  exports  ?  Name 
the  principal  settlements  of  British  Guiana. 
What  are  its  exports  ?  Which  of  these  is  espe- 
cially noteworthy?  Locate  and  describe  the 
Falkland  Islands.     What  are  the  exports  ? 


Vn.  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  AFRICA.  —  The  southern  p:irt  of  the 
continent  of  Africa  contains  several  colonial  dependencie.s  of  Great  Britain  having 
an  aggregate  area  of  over  a  million  square  miles,  to  which,  as  a  result  of  the  recent 
war,  the  territories  of  the  former  South  African  Republic  and  of  the  Orange  Free  State 
have  been  added.  The  population  is  densest  near  the  coast  cities  of  Cape  Colony  and 
Natal,  and  at  the  gold-mining  centres  of  the  Transvaal,  while  large  parts  of  Rhodesia 
are  uninhabitable  or  occupied  by  native  races  only.  The  population,  white  and  black, 
of  the  whole  territory  is  over  five  millions.  The  older  colonies  were  largely  peopled 
by  Dutch  immigrants,  and  their  descendants  now  form  about  half  the  inliabitants  of 
European  blood.  The  coast  line  is  deficient  in  natural  harbors,  and  large  sums  are 
annually  expended  in  improvements.  Land  naturally  arable  forms  the  lesser  portion 
of  the  area  of  these  colonies;  but  under  government  encouragement  irrigation  has 
been  extensively  resorted  to,  and  considerable  land  has  been  thereby  reclaimed.  The 
wealth  of  this  territory  is,  and  must  continue  to  be,  largely  in  grazing  and  mining, 
and  their  allied  industries  and  resulting  trade. 

Cape  Colony,  the  oldest  of  these  British  dependencies,  lies  to  the  south  of  the 
Orange  River.  The  chief  products  are  diamonds,  wool,  ostrich  feathers,  copper,  hides, 
maize,  wheat,  and  tobacco.  A  large  part  of -the  export  of  wool  and  angora  hair  is 
raised  in  territory  outside,  and  to  the  north  of  the  colony. 

The  population  of  Cape  Colony  is  more  than  a  million  and  three-quarters.  Cupe 
Toimi,  the  capital,  has  the  best  harbor,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  trade  and  manufac- 
tures. Kimberhj,  on  the  northern  border,  is  the  centre  of  the  diamond  mines.  Port 
Elizabeth  is  an  important  seaport.  From  the  islands  on  the  west  coast  guano  is  in- 
creasingly derived,  the  Peruvian  deposits,  long  so  important  to  commerce,  being 
nearly  exhausted. 

Natal,  on  the  east  coast,  has  a  population  of  nearly  a  million.  It  has  extensive 
graziug-lands,  and  there  are  rich  coal  deposits  at  New  Castle  in  the  north.      The 


106  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

exports  are  wool,  sugar,  maize,  hides,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers.  Durban  is  the 
juost  important  port,  and  Pietermaritzburg  the  capital.  A  submarine  cable  along  the 
foast  connects  South  Africa  with  Europe. 

The  Transvaal  lies  between  the  rivers  Vaal  and  Limpopo,  and  is  cut  off  Ijj-  Por- 
tuguese territory  from  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  Middle  States, 
and  had  before  the  recent  war  a  population  of  over  a  million,  less  than  half  the 
whites  being  of  Dutch  descent.  It  possesses  in  the  Witwatersrand  gold-fiekls  the 
most  productive  gold-producing  territory  of  the  world.  The  ore  is  not  rich  in  metal, 
but  very  even  in  texture  and  extending  over  a  great  distance.  Johannesburg  is  the 
centre  of  the  mining  district  and  Pretoria  the  capital.  The  natural  entry  port  of  the 
Transvaal  is  Lourenqo  Marquez  on  Delagoa  Bay  in  Portuguese  territory,  which  is  con- 
nected by  railway  with  Pretoria. 

The  Orange  Elver  State  hes  between  the  Transvaal  and  Cape  Colony,  and  is 
somewhat  larger  than  Pennsylvania.  The  capital  is  Bloi'mfontein ;  and  its  interests 
are  mainly  agricultural,  though  it  possesses  coal  and  diamond  mines.  Its  productions 
are  similar  to  those  of  Cape  Colony. 

Mauritius,  an  important  though  small  island,  lies  about  600  miles  to  the  east  of 
]\Iadagascar.  Its  area  is  a  little  greater  than  that  of  Long  Island,  j^.Y.,  and  it  has 
a  population  equal  to  that  of  Rhode  Island.  The  laboring-class  is  composed  of 
coolies,  who  work  on  the  sugar  plantations.  Sugar  is  the  staple  product  and  the 
principal  export.  It  is  sent  mainl_y  to  India,  Australia,  England,  and  the  United 
States ;  the  annual  value  of  the  export  is  about  §800,000.  Hemp,  drugs,  and  caout- 
chouc are  the  other  important  exports. 

Gambia,  Sierra  Leone,  and  Lagos  are  small  British  colonies  on  the  west  coast. 
]\Iuch  of  the  trade  centres  at  Freetown,  the  capital  of  Sierra  Leone.  The  principal 
exports  are  palm-nuts  and  palm-oil ;  but  there  is  considerable  trade  in  hides,  rubber, 
ivory,  cotton,  and  gums.  The  commerce  of  these  colonies  with  the  L'nited  States  is 
of  considerable  importance,  our  exportation  to  them  consisting  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, petroleum,  and  minor  wares.     The  climate  is  unhealthful. 

British  West  Africa.  —  The  lower  antl  navigable  course  of  the  river  Niger  with  a 
great  extent  of  territory  on  either  side  became  a  crown  colony  in  I'.MiO.  ()I<1  Calabar 
is  the  principal  port,  and  the  products  are  palm-oil,  rubber,  ebony,  and  ivory. 

Lower  Egypt  is  nominally  a  dependency  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Practically, 
however,  since  the  completion  of  the  Suez  canal,  it  has  been  a  British  protectorate. 
The  canal  was  constructed  and  opened  to  traffic  by  French  capitalists.  But  owing  to 
the  importance  of  her  colonial  interests  in  India,  the  control  of  this  highway  was  of 
vital  importance  to  Great  Britain,  and  in  1875  a  leading  interest  was  purcliased  from 
the  Khedive  of  Egypt  by  the  British  government.  England  has  reformed  its  finances, 
reconstructed  its  army,  and  used  it  as  an  instrument  for  conquering  the  Soudan.  The 
commercial  prosjierity  of  the  country  has  increased  amazingly  in  recent  years ;  and 


COMMlllK  IM.   Gi:o<n:M'ii  V 


101 


tho  Pi-cction  of  a  dam  on  tlie  Nile  at  the  island  of  Assuan  on  the  sonthein  bm-der  will 
inmieusely  increase  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  country. 

Port  Said,  at  the  Jlediterranean  end  of  the  canal,  brought  into  existence  by  the 
construction  of  this  work,  has  become  a  large  centre  for  trade.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  in  time  Port  Said  will  be  Egypt's  chief  commercial  city.  Raw  cotton,  to  the 
annual  value  of  about  f  40,000,000,  is  the  chief  export  of  Egypt.  It  is  sent  mainly 
to  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  France.  The  leading  imports  are  cotton  manufactures 
and  coal  from  Great  Britain.  At  present  the  bulk  of  foreign  commerce  is  concen- 
trated at  Alexandria,  at  the  northwestern  extremity  of  the  Nile  delta.  Other  ports 
are  Daniiftta  and  Rosetta.     Suez  is  an  important  port  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea. 

The  Soudan,  reconquered  by  England  and  Egypt  iu  1898,  was  found  to  be  nearly 
dei)opulated  by  the  fanatical  cruelty  of  its  rulers.  Its  capital  is  Kliartum,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Blue  and  White  Niles.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Egypt.  The 
natural  port  of  the  Soudan  is  Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  The  northern  part  of  the 
country  is  a  desert  traversed  by  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Xile.  The  boundary  on 
the  south  is  ill  defined,  but  runs  with  the  northern  boundary  of  British  East  Africa. 
The  railwaj^  connecting  Uganda  with  the  port  of  Mombasa  on  the  Indian  Ocean  will 
afford  the  rich  tropical  lands  of  the  southern  Soudan  an  outlet  for  trade.  A  narrow 
strip  bordering  the  Gulf  of  Aden  also  belongs  to  British  African  possessions. 

Zanzibar,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is  the  largest  city  iu  Eastern  Africa, 
and  passed  under  British  control  in  1896.  It  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  the  centre  of  a 
large  trade  with  British  India,  Europe,  Griinan  Kast  Africa,  and  the  coast  towns.  It 
imports  piece  goods,  rice,  coal,  and  niaiiulardinil  articles  to  the  annual  value  of 
S;(),000,000 ;  and  exports  ivory,  cloves,  cnpia,  niMicr,  and  gum-copal,  etc.,  to  a  some- 
what greater  value  than  that  of  the  imports. 


QUESTIONS 


Give    some    aocnvint 


area,  pliysical 
cliiirnrtcristics,  niid  ii:itiii;il  wealtli  of  the  British 
]„,^„>M.,n.  iu  Sniuh  Afiioa.  Wliere  is  Cape 
('.i1mii\  ;■  \Vl]:it  ;nv  it^  principal  products?  Ill 
what  city  arc  most  i.f  the  manufactures? 

Wliere  is  Natal  ?  What  mineral  deposits  in 
the  colony  ?      W^hat  are  the  leading  expoi-ts  ? 

What  i.s  the  leading  iiiodiu-t  of  the  Transvaal  ? 
WIcit  is  ii>  c:i].ii;il  ■.•  —  111.-  ciiiiv  (if  the  mines? 
wiirr.'  i.  ih,- <  i,,,ii^.'  Hiv,  r  SI  ii.' :'    Wliat  is  its 

Ira.liiiu  uniu.ux  :•      Wl.al   i>  it ,  raiiilal  ? 

Wli,  IV  is  l;liodcsia  ':'  ill  uliat  Ma-c  of  dcvelop- 
incHt  is  it''  AVhat  i.s  its  ca]iital  ;'  Wliat  river 
crosses  if.'  Describe  Mamitias.  Wlcii  is  the 
IcailiaL'  in'oduct  and  export  ?  Whither  is  it  sent? 
What  otluT  e.'qjorts  can  you  name?  What 
liiitisli  Colonies  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa? 
Wliat  ai'c  the  principal  ports?  What  are  the 
most  iiniiortant  exports  ?     What  other  exports 


can  you  name  ?  Wliat  can  you  say  of  our  own 
trade  with  these  colonies  ? 

What  is  tlie  political  .status  of  lower  Egypt 
and  the  region  of  the  Xile  delta  ?  Wliat  special 
cause  has  brought  about  tliis  condition  ?  By 
what  power  is  the  Suez  canal  viitiiiiUy  con- 
trolled ?  Where  is  Port  Said  ?  What  is  sai.t  of 
its  commerce  ?  What  is  the  principal  Egyptian 
export  ?  What  are  the  principal  imports  ?  With 
what  nation  is  this  trade  chiefly  carried  on  ? 
What  is  Egypt's  chief  seaport  ?  Wliat  other 
ports  are  important  ?  AVhat  two  ports  are  the 
termini  of  the  Suez  canal  ? 

Where  is  the  Soudan  ?  At  the  junction  of 
what  rivers  is  its  capital  ?  What  will  be  its 
port  on  the  Ked  Sea?  — on  the  Indian  Ocean? 
What  is  the  largest  city  of  Eastern  Africa  ?  On 
wliat  island  is  it  ?  What  are  the  staples  of  its 
trade  ? 


108 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE 

In  tlie  importance  of  commercial  exchanges  with  the  United  States,  Germany 
is  second  only  to  Great  Britain.^  The  empire  extends  along  the  Baltic  Sea  oOO 
miles,  and  on  the  North  Sea  200  miles.  Its  situation  is  central  in  Europe,  seven 
nations  adjoining  its  borders.  Along  the  coast  the  country  is  generally  level,  and 
in  some  sections  marshy.  Farther  inland  the  level  rises,  terminating  toward  the 
south  in  a  mountainous  region.  Although  the  total  area  is  scarcely  twice  that  of 
the  State  of  Colorado,  the  population  is  two-thirds  as  great  as  that  of  the  United 
States. 

Five  large  rivers  traverse  the  empire  and  flow  northerly  into  the  sea,  —  the 
Vistula,  in  the  extreme  east,  and  in  their  order,  the  Oder,  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and 
the  Rhine.  These  are  all  more  or  less  navigable.  At  the  south  are  the  head-waters 
of  the  Danube.  The  Rhine  and  the  Danube  are  connected  by  a  canal,  thus  forming 
an  unbroken  waterway  betw^een  the  North  and  the  Black  Seas.  Connection  is  also 
made  by  canal  with  the  Seine  and  the  Rhone,  in  France.  The  Oder  with  the  Elbe, 
and  the  Vistula  with  the  Oder,  are  also  connected  by  canals,  thus  affording  internal 
waterways  of  great  commercial  value.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  canal,  from  Kiel  on  the 
lialtic  to  the  Elbe  River,  opened  for  traffic  in  1895,  has  greatly  stimulated  German 
trade  from  the  Baltic  ports.  In  connection  with  these  waterways  Germany  has  the 
greatest  railway  system  in  the  world,  except  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  plains  in  the  north  are  devoted  mainly  to  agriculture.  Much  of  the  amber 
of  commerce  is  found  on  the  north  coast.  Except  in  the  Rhine  valley,  the  soil  is 
not  naturally  very'  fertile,  but  great  skill  is  used  in  cultivating  it,  and  large  crops 


'  German 


Exports 


Textiles 8222,6"0,000 

Metals  and  metal  wares       .     .     .       184,847,000 

Food-products 120.809,000 

Chemicals,  drugs,  etc '.14,870,000 

Machinery,  iiistruiiieiits      .     .     .         (Ki,  103,000 

Fuel .02,394,000 

Leather 59,171,000 

Together  with  stone,  clay,  glass,  and  their  manu- 
factures, wooden  wares,  paper  goods,  hard- 
ware, books  and  art  works,  with  other  articles, 
to  the  total  value  of  over  $1,000,000,000. 

Of  till-    ImIVl'm.II-    r M,-.VI;,I    ,Arl,ani;rs.   (Ir, 

the  total  vain,   -i   --I.JJ.,' ,  - !..■  |.i  in.  i|ial 

and  imporlnl   li..ni    a,  anal.  ,   n.    ila^  \alur  (.1'   .-> 
cotton,  to  the  \:ihK'  nl  ab..ui  M7,-;.jO,()iio. 


V,   1898 

Imports 

Textiles S22.3,10fi,000 

Metals  and  metal  wares .     .     .     .       163,741.000' 

Food-products 409,217.000 

Wooden  wares 99,0S7,00O 

Leather 62,241,000 

Live  animals 45,542,000 

Together  with  animal  products,  fuel,  fats  and 
oil,  chemicals,  leather,  machinery,  etc.,  to 
the  total  value  of  over  $1,359,900,000. 


cd  to  the  United  States  merchandise  to 
sugar,  to  the  value  of  over  §13,000,000, 
one  of  the  principal  items  being  raw 


C().\nii:i:<iM.  i.icoa/i.i/'iiv  109 

are  grown.  Tlio  inoro  important  of  these  are  potatoes,  rj'e,  hay,  oats,  sugar  beets, 
grains,  flax,  and  h(jps.  I'otatoes,  cereals,  and  beet-sugar  are  exported,  and  the  govern- 
ment encourages  the  beet-sugar  indnstry  by  a  system  of  bounties.  The  agricultural 
j)roducts  are  not  adequate  to  the  support  of  the  population ;  less  than  half  the  peo- 
jile  depending  directly  upon  the  soil.  Vine  culture  is  extensively  pursued  in  the 
llhine  valley.  Grazing  is  confined  to  a  few  districts,  —  cattle-raising  to  the  Jutland 
l)eninsula,  sheep-raising  to  the  northern  and  central  parts,  and  horse-breeding  to  the 
eastern  part.  But  these  interests  are  not  efiual  to  the  deniandsj  and  animals  and 
animal  products  are  imported. 

Fruit  and  forest  trees  cover  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  empire,  the  latter  being  a 
source  of  large  income.  Forestry  is  a  science  to  which  the  (Jermans  give  great 
attention.  As  a  rule,  the  mountainous  regions  in  the  southern  part  of  the  empire 
are  well  wooded;  the  more  common  trees  are  the  fir,  pine,  birch,  larch,  oak,  and 
beech.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  empire  is  the  famous  Black  Forest,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  pines.  From  this  and  other  forest  regions  quantities  of  lumber  are 
floated  down  the  Rhine  for  export." 

The  mountainous  regions  are  rich  in  minerals,  coal  and  iron  being  found  in 
great  abundance.  Iron  usually  occurs  in  the  same  localities  as  coal,  thus  fixing  the 
sites  of  the  great  metal-working  centres.  Germany  produces  more  silver  than  any 
other  country  of  Europe.     Zinc,  tin,  lead,  and  salt  are  extensively  mined. 

Of  late  years  manufacturing  interests  have  increased  with  great  rapidity,  and 
Germany  now  stands  third  as  an  iron  and  steel  producing  nation,  the  United  States 
being  first  and  Great  Britain  second.  Cotton,  linen,  woollen,  and  silk  textile  fabrics 
are  woven  in  great  variety,  the  exports  being  chiefly  cloth  and  hosiery.  Other 
manufactured  products  are  glass,  porcelain,  paper,  aniline  dyes,  leather  goods,  and 
wooden  ware.  Much  of  the  manufacturing  is  done  in  small  towns.  Large  cities  are 
rapidly  increasing,  and  most  of  them  are  noted  for  some  important  industry. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  great  northern 
plain.  It  has  a  population  of  2,000,000,  and,  next  to  Paris,  is  the  most  populous  city 
on  the  continent.  The  railway  and  canal  systems  of  the  country  radiate  from  Berlin, 
and  have  made  it  a  great  inland  commercial  centre.  The  city  has  large  textile-factories 
and  machine-shops.  Its  stock-exchange  is  the  most  important  on  the  continent,  and 
its  great  manufacturing  interests  give  employment  to  half  its  population.  There  is 
direct  railway  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  empire  and  with  Russia,  Austria- 
Hungary,  France,  and  Switzerland. 

Bremen  has  recently  been  restored  to  its  former  rank  as  a  great  commercial  city 
by  the  deepening  of  the  lower  Weser,  and  is  now  accessible  to  the  largest  sea-going 

'  Huge  rafts  of  logs  are  floated  down  the  Rhine  every  year,  each  formed  of  several  smaller 
ones,  which  have  come  by  mountain  streams  from  the  Black  Forest.  Layere  of  pine  logs  are 
placed  one  upon  another,  and  over  all  Is  laid  a  rough  deck.  Upon  this  are  erected  cabins  enough 
to  accommodate,  in  some  cases,  as  many  as  four  hundred  persons,  as  the  raftsmen  usually  take 
their  families  with  them.  Live-stock  is  also  put  on  board,  and  the  whole  constitutes  a  floating 
village.     The  Netherlands  is  the  destination  of  these  rafts. 


110  COMMERCIAL    UEOGRM'IIY 

vessels.  This  citj-,  with  Hamburg,  commands  the  German  trade  with  America,  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  South  America,  and  other  important  commercial  countries. 
Much  of  the  raw  material  collected  by  the  ships  of  Bremen  is  manufactured  in  that 
city.  It  is  a  great  tobaceo-mai-ket ;  rice-shelling  and  sugar-refining  are  important 
industries.     Considerable  ship-building  is  also  carried  on. 

Hamburg,  situated  on  the  Elbe  sixty  miles  from  the  sea,  is  accessible  to  all 
classes  of  vessels.  .  It  came  into  importance  about  the  time  of  the  decline  of  Venice 
and  other  Italian  commercial  cities.  At  the  present  day  it  is  not  only  the  most 
important  port  of  Germany,  but  it  is  also  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the  continent 
of  Europe.  The  lower  part  of  the  city  is  traversed  by  numerous  small  canals,  which 
greatly  aid  commerce.  Vast  docks  and  basins  have  been  built,  and  in  other  ways 
engineering  skill  has  made  a  fine  harbor  out  of  one  naturally  indifferent.  The  com- 
merce of  the  port  is  greater  than  that  of  all  the  ports  of  The  Netherlands,  or  those  of 
Belgium.  It  is  most  extensive  with  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  the  Argentine 
Eepublic,  and  the  East  and  the  "West  Indies.  The  industries  of  Hamburg  are  con- 
siderable, not  only  in  the  manufacture  of  raw  products,  but  in  ship-building,  brewing, 
and  metal-working. 

Danzig,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  has  important  trade  in  wood  and  wheat. 

Stettin  does  much  ship-building,  and  has  extensive  commercial  relations  with 
Berlin  for  Baltic  trade,  ranking  next  in  shipping  after  Hamburg  and  Bremen. 

Krefeld,  an  inland  city,  is  the  chief  city  in  Germany  for  the  manufacture  of  silk 
goods. 

Magdeburg  is  mentioned  as  the  chief  centre  of  the  beet-sugar  trade  in  Germany. 

Dusseldorf,  on  the  Rhine,  is  the  centre  of  a  great  manufacturing  region.  Fabrics 
of  cotton  and  silk  are  extensively  made.  Iron  and  coal  are  abundant,  and  Essen, 
the  seat  of  the  great  Krupp  steel-works,  is  near  by.' 

Cologne,  a  few  miles  farther  down  the  Ehine,  is  an  important  distributiug 
point.  It  has  large  sugar-refineries  and  cotton-mills.  The  famous  perfume  to 
which  the  city  has  given  its  name  was  first  manufactured  here,  and  it  is  still  a  great 
industrial  product. 

Frankfort,  situated  on  the  ;Main,  a  large  tributary  of  the  Rhine,  is  the  centre 
of  the  trade  of  southwestern  Germany,  and  one  of  the  chief  money-markets  of 
Euro])e. 

Dresden,  on  the  Elbe,  has  numerous  industries.  Its  china  and  iiorcclaiu  ware 
rank  with  the  finest  made. 

Leipzig,  a  few  miles  west  of  Dresden,  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  printing  and 
]iul)lishiug  trade  of  the  continent.  It  is  also  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  leather 
products  and  furs. 

1  Essen  owes  much  of  its  prosperity  to  the  great  coal-mines  in  its  vicinity,  but  it  i.s  best  known 
as  the  industrial  colony  of  Krupp  &  Co..  who  supply  artillery  to  the  great  powers.  Cast-steel 
goods  of  every  description  are  here  maiuifaotured. 


CoMMICmiAI. 


■EocUM'in 


111 


Chemnitz,  a  few  miles  southwest  of  Dresden,  is  one  of  tlie  largest  eotton-weaving 
centres  in  Kurope. 

One-third  of  tlie  conuiicree  of  the  (iernian  Knipire  is  earried  on  with  the 
adjoining  nations.  The  nierehant-marine  has  been  eneouraged  by  government,  with 
the  results  that  German  ships  sail  every  sea,  and  ship-building  is  being  so  largely 
increased  that  Germany  bids  fair  to  soon  lead  the  world  in  this  industry.  By 
reason  of  the  thorough  technical  and  commercial  education  of  their  traders  and  agents, 
the  Germans  are  becoming  formidable  competitors  for  the  carrying-trade  of  the  world. 
They  already  command  an  immense  trade  in  South  America,  Africa,  Eastern  Asia, 
and  the  Pacific  islands,  and  in  addition  they  have  largely  absorbed  the  carrying-trade 
of  the  ]\Iediterranean  ports  which  was  formerly  controlled  by  Great  Britain.  The 
North  German  Lloyd  and  the  Hamburg  American  are  the  largest  shipping  companies 
in  the  world. 

German  Colonial  Possessions.  —  The  colonial  interests  of  the  German  Empire  are 
as  yet  relatively  unimportant,  the  various  dependencies  lying  in  regions  that  have 
not  been  commercially  or  industrially  developed.  The  principal  territories  to  which 
the  Germans  lay  claim  are  the  north  coast  of  Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  three  islands  of 
the  Solomon  group,  and  sections  of  the  coast  of  Africa,  east  and  west.  The  Zanzibar 
coast  for  500  miles  to  the  north  of  Cape  Delgado,  and  the  possessions  in  New  Guinea 
—  the  largest  island  hut  one  on  the  globe  —  are  areas  whose  future  commercial 
importance  may  be  very  great.  The  products  of  the  Zanzibar  coast  are  chiefly  gums, 
spices,  ivory,  rubber,  and  vegetable  oils ;  of  New  Guinea,  spices,  sago,  and  tropical 
fruits.  By  purchase  from  Spain  in  1899,  Germany  has  come  into  possession  of  the 
Caroline  and  Ladrone  islands  (except  Guam)  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


QUESTIONS 


With  respect  to  the  value  of  lier  commercial 
exchanges  with  the  United  States,  what  is  the 
relative  position  of  Germany  among  nations  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  surface  of  tlie  country  ? 
What  is  the  comparative  area  ?  —  the  compara- 
tive population  ? 

What  important  rivers  traverse  the  German 
Empire?  What  canal  connects  the  North  witli 
the  Baltic  Sea  ?  What  other  canals  are  iiiipiir- 
tant  to  internal  commerce  ? 

What  are  the  leailing  agricultural  products? 
Which  river  valley  is  especially  fertile  ?  What 
products  of  the  soil  are  exported  ?  What  can 
you  say  of  the  grazing  interest  ?  What  propor- 
tion of  the  surface  is  forest  land  ?  How  is  the 
lumber  product  brought  to  the  seaboard  ? 

What  are  the  mineral  products  of  Germany  1 
What  natural  cause  has  fixed  the  location  of  the 
great  metal-working  cities  ?  In  the  product  of 
what  metal  is  Germany  the  leading  nation  of  the 
continent  of  Kurope  ? 


What  is  the  rank  of  the  German  Empire,  as 
an  iron  and  steel  producer,  among  the  nations 
of  the  world  ?  AVhat  are  the  chief  fabrics  ex- 
ported ?  What  other  manufactured  products 
can  you  name  ? 

Through  what  ports  is  the  bulk  of  German 
commerce  carried  on  ?  What  and  where  is  the 
pnseut  port  of  the  city  of  Bremen?  Name 
scinic  of  the  industries  of  this  city.  Where  is 
Iliunburg  ?  What  can  you  say  of  its  commercial 
importance?  of  its  manufactures ?  Give  some 
account  of  the  situation  and  industries  of  Ber- 
lin,—  of  Dusseldorf, — of  Cologne,  —  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, — of  Dresden,  —  of  Leipzig, 
—  of  Chemnitz, —of  Stettin,  — of  Krefeld. 

What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  mer- 
chant-marine of  Germany  ?  What  causes  have 
contributed  to  the  increase  of  German  com- 
merce ?  With  what  remote  countries  is  German 
trade  increa.sing  ?  \Vliat  colonial  dependencies 
of  the  German  Empire  can  you  name  ? 


112 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  FRANCE 

France  ranks  third  among  foreign  nations  in  the  value  of  her  trade  with  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain  having  iirst  place,  and  Germany  second.'  The  situation 
of  France  is  especially  favorable  for  commerce.  Along  the  northern  boundary  lies 
the  English  Channel,  on  the  west  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  more  than  half  the 
southern  boundary  is  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  The  northern  and  western 
sections  of  France  are  part  of  the  great  plain  that  extends  along  the  northern  coast 
of  Europe.  The  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  country  are  mountainous.  In 
these  highlands  rise  the  River  Seine,  which  flows  northwest  into  the  English 
Channel ;  the  Loire,  which  flows  west  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  and  the  Ehone, 
which  flows  south  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Garonne  flows  from  the 
Pyrenees  northwest  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  France  has  nearly  one  hundred  rivers 
that  are  more  or  less  navigable,  and  in  connection  with  them  is  a  very  complete 
system  of  canals.  The  Rhone  is  connected  by  canal  with  the  Rhine  in  Germany, 
also  with  the  Loire  and  the  Seine.  Another  canal  joins  the  Garonne  River  with  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  thus  saving  the  voyage  of  2,000  miles  around  the  Spanish 
peninsula.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  republic  is  a  network  of  canals  that  connects 
the  main  industrial  centres,  and  affords  direct  communication  with  the  canals  and 
rivers  of  Germany,  Belgium,  and  The  Netherlands.  A  very  complete  railway 
system  supplements  these  waterways,  and  connects  all  parts  of  the  republic. 

France  has  a  population  about  half  as  great  as  that  of  the  United  States ;  the 
area  is  a  trifle  less  than  that  of  Germany,  and  four-flfths  of  it  is  divided  into  small 
farms.  The  chief  crops  in  the  northern  part  are  cereals  and  sugar-beets.  Grapes 
and  flax  are  grown  in  nearly  every  section  of  the  country;  in  the  south,  olives, 
tobacco,  semi-tropical  fruits,  and  mulberry-trees  used  for  silk-worm  culture,  receive 
the  most  attention.     In  wine-making  France  stands  first  among  nations,  and  wine 


1  The  total  commerce  of  France  in  1899  amounted  to  over  $800,000,000  ;  of  which  the  imports 
somewliat  exceeded  the  exports.  Raw  materials  constituted  more  than  half  of  the  imports  ;  and 
manufactured  goods  nearly  three-fifths  of  the  exports.  The  chief  imports  were  breadstuffs,  wool, 
wine,  raw  silk,  cotton,  wood,  and  hides ;  the  chief  exports,  silk,  wool,  and  cotton  goods,  wine,  small 
wares  and  leather  (including  gloves).  From  the  United  States  France  imported  goods  to  the  value 
of  $40,000,000  in  1899,  and  exported  goods  to  the  value  of  $23,000,000.  The  largest  export  of  the 
United  States  w;us  cotton,  the  largest  import  silk  and  silk  goods. 


COMMERCIAL   GF.OGRAPIIY  113 

is  tlie  most  valuable  export.  Owing  to  diseases  of  the  vine  the  product  of  wine 
has  greatly  fallen  off,  and  France  now  imports  wine  from  Spain  and  Italy. 

The  mineral  resources  of  France  are  comparatively  small.  In  the  northeast,  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Ardennes  Mountains,  are  coal  and  iron  mines.  Coal  and 
iron  are  also  mined  in  the  southeast.  The  coal  supply  of  the  countrj-  is  not  eriual 
to  the  demand,  and  it  is  largely  imported.  Lead,  the  only  other  mineral  mined  to 
any  extent,  is  found  in  the  central  plateau. 

Although  more  than  half  the  people  of  France  are  dependent  on  the  soil,  yet 
the  manufactures  of  the  republic  are  of  greater  commercial  value  than  all  other 
products.  The  great  manufacturing  centres  are  in  the  region  of  the  coal  <leposits, 
and  produce  not  only  iron  goods,  but  textile  fabrics  of  all  kinds,  —  chiefly  cotton, 
linen,  and  woollen  in  the  northeast,  and  silk  in  the  south. 

The  fisheries  are  of  great  value,  and  give  employment  to  150,000  men.  The 
lakes  and  rivers  are  generally  well  stocked.  On  the  coast,  oyster-culture  has 
become  an  industry  of  much  value,  and  sardines  are  caught  in  great  numbers. 
Deep-water  fishing  is  carried  on  to  a  larger  extent  than  by  almost  any  other 
continental  nation,  French  vessels  being  found  on  the  Iceland,  Newfoundland,  and 
other  cod  banks. 

Fruit  and  forest  trees  cover  about  a  fiflU  of  the  area.  Among  the  fruits  grown  are  olives, 
apples,  pears,  citrons,  tigs,  and  plums.  The  principal  nuts  are  almonds,  chestnuts,  and  walnftts. 
The  forests  consist  chiefly  of  oak,  birch,  pine,  beech,  elm,  and  chestnut.  The  largest  forest  areas 
are  in  the  northeast,  southeast,  and  southwest.  In  the  south,  the  cork-tree  is  carefully  cultivated. 
Wood  forms  the  chief  domestic  fuel  of  France. 

Grazing  is  extensively  carried  on  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  republic,  but  the  animals  as  a  whole 
are  inferior  in  quality.  In  the  northern  part  oxen  are  employed  for  field-labor,  while  in  the  soutli 
mules  and  donkeys  are  chiefly  used.  The  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  receives  considerable 
attention;  and  among  the  lesser  industries  are  bee-  and  poultry-culture.  The  breeding  of  horses  is 
not  carried  on  so  extensively  as  in  other  European  countries.  The  percheron  of  Normandy, 
however,  a  draught-horse  of  great  strength  and  endurance,  is  a  famous  breed,  and  is  largely  exported 
to  the  United  States. 

Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  has  a  population  of  2,.')00,000.  It  is  the  largest 
city  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and,  next  to  London  and  New  York,  the  largest 
in  the  world.  The  canal  and  railway  systems  of  France  converge  here,  and  help 
make  the  city  the  great  commercial  and  financial  centre  of  the  republic.  The 
Bourse,  or  Stock  Exchange,  is  excelled  in  importance  in  Europe  by  those  at  London 
and  Berlin  only.  It  is  also  the  fashion  centre  of  the  world.  Paris  is  an  important 
industrial  centre  in  fine  artistic  work,  such  as  jewehy,  metal-work,  leather  goods, 
artificial  flowers,  millinery  goods,  porcelain,  and  fine  pottery.  The  River  Seine,  on 
which  the  city  is  situated,  had  formerly  a  natural  depth  of  only  two  feet,  but 
engineering  skill  has  increased  this  to  ten  feet. 

Havre  is  the  port  through  which  the  ocean  traffic  of  Paris  passes.  It  is  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Seine,  and,  though  only  tenth  in  population,  is  the  second  jiort  of 
France.  It  trades  with  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  more  particularly  with  (Ireat 
Britain  and  the  United  States.     It  imports  raw  materials  and  food-products  for  the 


114  COMMEIiCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

manufacturing  districts  of  the  north,  and  exports  manufactured  goods.  Outside  of 
Great  Britain,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  ship-buikiiug  ports  in  the  worhl,  and  its  fishing 
interests  are  extensive.  Among  the  various  industries  are  sugar-refiuing,  tobacco- 
manufacture,  and  iron-working. 

Rouen  is  situated  on  the  Seine,  seventy-five  miles  above  Havre,  and  is  accessible 
to  vessels  of  large  size.     It  is  the  centre  of  a  great  cotton-manufacturing  region. 

Marseilles,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  carries  on  a  large  traffic  with  Havre;  but' 
the  greater  part  of  its  trade  is  with  other  Mediterranean  ports,  with  China,  Japan, 
and  India.  The  commerce  of  the  city  has  been  greatly  benefited  by  the  completion 
of  the  Suez  canal.  Marseilles  is  an  important  industrial  centre.  Soap-making  is 
an  important  industry,  and  there  are  oil  and  chemical  factories,  metal-works,  and 
ship-yards.     It  is  the  largest  port  of  France. 

Bordeaux,  on  the  River  Garonne,  is  the  chief  wine-market  of  France.  It  is  the 
third  city  in  commercial  importance;  but  its  harbor  is  so  shallow  that  oceau  traffic 
is  carried  on  mainly  through  Pauillac,  which  is  nearer  the  sea,  and  has  a  fine  harbor. 
In  addition  to  the  wine  business,  Bordeaux  has  considerable  other  trade  with  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  South  America.  Ship-buildiug  is  next  to  the  wine 
industry  in  importance. 

Lyons,  situated  on  the  Ehone,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  jVIediter- 
raneau,  is  the  largest  silk-manufacturing  city  in  the  world.  Although  great  quantities 
of  raw  silk  are  produced  in  the  Rhone  valley,  yet  the  supply  is  not  equal  to  the 
demand,  and  Italy  and  China  are  depended  upon  to  supply  the  deficit.  Velvet, 
ribbon,  cloth,  and  other  products  of  silk,  are  manufactured  throughout  this  region, 
and  exported  from  Paris  both  by  way  of  Marseilles  and  of  Havre. 

The  skill  of  the  French  in  spinning  and  weaving  has  extended  to  cotton,  woollen, 
and  linen  fabrics.  These  goods  are  manufactured  chiefly  in  the  north  and  northeast, 
and  in  value  the  woollen  goods  cx|i(iiti'il  apiJiuach  thcise  nf  silk.  Lace-making  is  one 
of  the  most  characteristic  French  industi  iis.  Alencons  and  Valenciennes  having  each 
given  its  name  to  choice  qualitirs.  Lisle,  near  the  Brlgian  Imrder,  is  one  of  the 
largest  linen-manufacturing  centres  of  Europe,  ami  tine  grades  of  goods  are  known  In" 
the  name  of  the  city. 

Corsica,  politically  a  part  of  France,  is  of  little  commercial  imj)ortance. 

FRENCH  COLONIES  AND  POSSESSIONS.  —  France  has  colonial  dependencies 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  —  a  few  of  importance,  and  many  that  are  relatively 
insignificant.  Madagascar,  Tahiti,  and  Tunis  are  protectorates  of  France;  Algeria 
is  a  province  rather  than  a  colony;  French  Congo,  the  French  Soudan,  and  Dahomey 
are  immense  and  only  partially  explored  territories  in  northern  and  western  Africa; 
New  Caledonia  and  French  Guiana  are  penal  settlements;  Anam,  Cambodia,  and 
Timkin  arc  in  Indo-Cliina.  The  Manpiesas  Islands,  the  Society  Islands,  Reunion 
Island.  Guailalcmiie  and  .Martinii|uc  in  the  West  Indies,  and  the  fishing-islands  of 
.Miinu-lnu  and  St.  I'icrrc  off  the  c(iast  uf  Xowfoundland,  are  minor  colonies. 


COM M Kill- 1 M.    (lEuallM'IIY  115 

Algeria  has  a  total  area  about  tlii-ee  times  that  of  tlio  state  of  New  York,  and 
a  popuhttioii  of  about  four  millious.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  area  is  fertile.  The 
bulk  of  its  exports  are  sent  to  France,  consisting  of  grain,  olives,  olive-oil,  and 
tobacco.  Algiers,  the  capital,  is  largely  peopled  by  French  and  other  Europeans. 
The  only  other  port  of  importance  is  Oran. 

Tunis  lias  about  the  area  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  a  population  lialf  as  great. 
It  is  a  protectorate  of  France,  though  the  local  laws  are  administered  by  Turks. 
The  exports  are  chiefly  olives  and  cereals,  which  are  sent  to  Italy.  Tlie  capital, 
Tunis,  is  the  largest  city  of  the  Barbarj-  States,  having  a  population  of  150,000,  about 
half  Mohammedan.     Tliis  city  has  manufactures  of  silk  and  woollen  goods. 

The  climate  and  productions  of  both  Algeria  and  Tunis  are  like  those  of 
southern  Spain  and  southern  Italy.  Wine  is  a  product  of  increasing  importance. 
Great  Britain  supplies  about  half  the  manufactured  goods  imported  by  these  states. 

The  French  dependencies  in  the  East  are  naturally  rich,  but  as  yet  little 
developed. 

Anam  stretches  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  for 
a  distance  of  800  miles.  Rice,  cotton,  spices,  and  sugar  are  the  chief  products. 
Building-timber  is  abundant,  and  minerals  are  supposed  to  be,  though  the  deposits 
are  entirely  undeveloped.  Trade  is  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese, 
■who  are  near  of  kin  to  the  people  of  Anam.  The  Mekong  or  Cambodia  River 
crosses  the  southern  part  of  the  country.  Its  valley  is  very  fertile,  and  rice  is  the 
staple  crop.  Hue,  near  the  centre  of  the  country  on  the  coast,  is  the  capital,  and  an 
important  French  naval  station  ;  Saiffon,  at  the  south,  is  the  commercial  centre. 
This  city  has  a  population  of  perhaps  100,000,  and  is  the  seat  of  considerable  trade 
in  rice,  spices,  and  valuable  woods. 

Cambodia  lies  at  the  south,  between  the  borders  of  Anam  and  Siam.  The  basin 
of  the  Mekong  River,  which  flows  through  the  territory,  is  extremely  fertile. 
Rice  and  opium  are  the  chief  products,  the  latter  being  a  monopoly  of  the  French 
government. 

French  Guiana  is  the  most  easterly  of  the  European  colonies  of  this  name.  It 
has  a  small  population,  and  the  climate  is  unhealthful.  Its  leading  exports  are  sugar, 
coffee,  gold,  cayenne  pepper,  tobacco,  and  ornamental  woods.     Cayenne  is  the  capital. 

Madagascar,  off  the  southeastern  coast  of  Africa,  is  an  island  about  five  times 
as  large  as  Cuba.  The  soil  is  fertile,  though  poorly  cultivated,  and  the  island  is 
relatively  of  but  small  commercial  consequence.  The  products  are  rice,  sugar,  silk, 
cotton,  fruits,  and  spices.  Tea-culture  is  a  growing  industry.  The  exports  are 
chiefly  rubber,  cattle  and  hides,  and  wax.     Tamatave  is  the  principal  seaport. 

New  Caledonia,  between  Australia  and  the  Feejee  Islands,  exports  coffee  and 
nickel  ore  to  Franco.  The  nickel  ore  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  plated  wares. 
Tahiti,  Marquesas,  and  the  Society  Islands  are  of  little  commercial  importance ; 
Reunion,  formerlj'  the  Island  of  Bourbon,  exports  sugar,  coffee,  and  vanilla. 


116 


COMMERCIA  L    GEOGRA  PHY 


French  Congo 

:St;uiley  Tool,  uixm 


ies  north 
vhich  Bra. 


of  the  Congo  River,  extending 
zaville,  its  capital,  is  situated. 


ip  the  river  beyond 


The  French  Soudan  includes  much  of  the  desert  of  Sahara.  Eastward,  by  treaty 
with  Great  Britain,  it  includes  the  territory  of  Wadai,  which  borders  on  the  Soudan. 
Its  chief  city  is  Timbuctoo. 

Dahomey  is  a  fertile  coast  kingdom  extending  inland  to  the  French  Soudan. 

These  immense  territories,  like  all  the  other  French  colonies,  although  most  of 
their  commerce  is  limited  by  restriction  laws  to  France,  cost  much  more  in  expense 
of  administration  than  they  return  in  profits  of  trade. 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  the  relative  position  of  France  to 
other  foreign  nations  in  the  importance  of  her 
commerce  with  the  United  States  ?  How  is  the 
commerce  of  France  affected  by  her  geographical 
position  ?  Describe  the  surface  of  the  northern 
and  western  parts  of  France.  What  parts  are 
mountainous  ?  Describe  the  course  of  tlie  more 
important  rivers.  Name  the  important  canal 
connections. 

What  is  the  comparative  area  of  France  ?  — 
population?  What  proportion  of  the  area  is 
devoted  to  agriculture  ?  What  are  the  chief  crops 
in  the  north  ?  —  in  the  south  ?  In  what  product 
is  France  pre-eminent  among  nations  ?  What 
are  the  leading  fruit-products  of  France  ?  What 
proportion  of  the  area  is  forest  ?  What  tree  is 
especially  cultivated  in  the  south  ?  What  can 
you  say  of  the  grazing  industries  ?  What  are  the 
principal  products  of  the  great  manufacturing 
centres  ?     What  can  you  say  of  the  fisheries  ? 

Give  some  account  of  Paris,  its  situation, 
commercial  importance,  and  leading  industries, 
—  of  Havre,  —  of  Rouen, — of  Marseilles,  —  of 
Bordeaux,  —  of  Lyons,  —  of  Lisle.  In  what  towns 
is  lace-making  an  important  industry  ?  What 
city  in  France  is  celebrated  for  fine  artistic  work 


in  a  great  variety  of  manufactures  ?  What  city 
has  the  most  extensive  ship-building  interests  ? 
What  city  has  the  most  commerce  with  eastern 
countries  and  Mediterranean  ports  ?  What  city 
is  the  seat  of  most  of  the  wine  trade  ?  What 
city  manufactures  the  most  silk  goods  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  importance  of  French 
colonial  dependencies  ?  What  are  the  com- 
parative area  and  population  of  Algeria  ?  What 
are  the  leading  exports  ?  To  what  country  are 
they  mainly  sent?  What  seaports  can  you 
name  ?  What  are  the  comparative  area  and 
population  of  Tunis  ?  What  are  the  chief  ex- 
ports ?  To  what  country  do  they  go  ?  Wliat 
local  industries  in  the  city  of  Tunis  ?  From 
what  country  do  Algeria  and  Tunis  derive  half 
their  imports  of  manufactured  goods  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  industrial  and  com- 
mercial development  of  the  eastern  dependencies 
of  France  ?  Where  is  Anam  ?  What  are  it.s 
chief  products  ?  By  whom  is  most  of  the  trade 
of  Anam  conducted  ?  What  are  the  situation 
and  principal  products  of  Cambodia  ?  Where 
is  French  Guiana?  What  are  its  leading  ex- 
ports ?  What  are  the  exports  of  New  Cale- 
donia ?  —  of  Keunion  Island  ? 


COMMERCIAL   OEOGnAPllY  117 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  KINGDOM   OF  THE  NETHERLANDS 

The  Netherlands,  or  Holland,  is  the  small  country  occujjying  the  delta  of  the 
River  Rhine.  The  area  of  the  country,  12,727  square  miles,  is  about  as  great  as  that 
of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  together;  the  population,  4,732,000,  is  equal  to 
that  of  Canada.  This  small  and  densely-peopled  country  conducted  a  foreign  com- 
merce of  $1,300,000,000  in  1898.  With  the  exception  of  Greece,  no  country  in 
Europe  has  so  many  inlets  of  the  sea,  yet  along  the  whole  coast  there  is  no 
good  natural  harbor.  The  country  is  low  and  flat.  One-third  of  the  area,  chiefly 
in  the  western  part,  is  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  having  been  reclaimed  by 
centuries  of  labor  devoted  to  the  building  of  a  system  of  dikes  that  rank  among  the 
greatest  feats  of  engineering.  The  length  of  navigable  river-channels  is  more  than 
1,000  miles.  A  network  of  canals,  resembling  our  country  roads  in  their  frequency 
and  intercommunication,  has  an  aggregate  length  twice  as  great.  These  canals  vary 
much  in  size.  Some  are  large  enough  to  accommodate  deep-water  vessels  ;  others  are 
scarcely  more  than  ditches.  The  waterways  are  supplemented  by  a  railway  system 
having  a  mileage  about  half  as  great,  partly  owned  and  operated  by  the  government. 

On  account  of  their  command  of  the  Rhine  trade  of  Germany,  and  of  their 
great  colonial  possessions,  the  Dutch  are  a  nation  of  merchants  ;  and  the  value  of 
their  foreign  commerce  is  greater,  for  the  population,  than  that  of  any  other  nation 
of  Europe.  Most  of  the  exports  go  to  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  and  nearly  half 
the  imports  come  from  these  countries.  The  export  trade  includes  not  only  the 
products  of  The  Netherlands,  but  the  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  and  rice  of  her  colonies.  In 
the  amount  of  shipping-tonnage,  compared  with  its  population.  The  Netherlands 
ranks  sixth  among  nations.  The  imports  of  the  United  States  from  The  Nether- 
lands consist  mainly  of  tobacco,  precious  stones,  and  coffee  ;  our  exports  to  The 
Netherlands  are  chiefly  cereals,  cotton,  animal-products,  and  petroleum.^ 

The  agricultural  industries  of  The  Netherlands,  while  important,  are  inferior  to 
the  grazing  interest.  Dairy-products,  especially  butter  and  cheese,  are  among  the 
largest  exports.     The  soil  is  skilfully  tilled;    bulbs   and   seeds  rather  than  other 


1  The  Netherlands,  like  Great  Britain,  is  a  great  distributing  and  jobbing  nation,  importing 
from  her  Asiatic  dependencies  and  other  countries,  and  exporting  the  surplus  which  she  does  not  use. 
Her  imports  slightly  exceed  her  exports,  the  formor  cntisistiiij  (if  breadstuffs,  iron  and  steel  and  its 

manufactures,  textiles  and  raw  cotton  and  wonl.  i  ipiin.  w 1,  coffee,  rice,  and  coal.     She  exports 

iron  and  steel,  breadstuffs,  textiles,  copper,  su^ai.  .  .if.  ..  i  i,  .  ,  and  paper,  in  this  order  of  value. 
The  correspondence  of  these  names,  sugar  and  ]i:i|..  r  b.  iii^  ili.'  only  items  not  found  among  both 
her  large  imports  and  exports,  shows  that  her  tradu  i.s  much  larger  than  her  production. 


118  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

crops  being  raised  for  export.  Dutch  horses  are  noted  for  their  size  and  strength. 
Poultry-raising  and  bee-culture  are  thriving  industries. 

Manufactures  are  extensively  carried  on,  and  a  variety  of  articles  is  made, 
cotton  and  linen  goods  being  those  mostly  exported.  In  proportion  to  its  popu- 
lation, The  Netherlands  imports  as  much  cotton  as  any  country  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.  Iron  and  steel  goods  are  also  made  ;  but  peat  being  the  chief  natural 
fuel  in  the  country,  the  ore,  as  well  as  the  coal  to  smelt  it,  is  imported.  In  general 
the  winds  are  depended  upon  for  motive  power.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  so 
level  that  full  advantage  is  taken  of  the  winds  that  sweep  over  it  with  little  cessation. 
Windmills  not  only  keep  the  country  from  inundation,  but  they  regulate  the  supply 
of  water  in  the  canals,  grind  grain  and  coffee,  wash  paper-pulp,  bruise  oil-seeds,  and 
perform  other  like  operations.  Nearly  all  industries  are  carried  on  in  small 
establishments.  Among  the  manufactured  goods  for  which  the  country  is  famous 
are  paper,  gin,  and  delft  ware.  The  building  of  wooden  ships  is  a  considerable 
industry;  the  timber  being  floated  down  the  Rhine  from  the  German  forests,  or 
imported  from  Norway. 

The  fisheries  give  employment  to  18.000  men.  The  produet  of  the  herring  fish- 
ery in  the  North  Sea  was  in  1898  valued  at  over  $2,D00,000. 

The  Netherlands  is  a  country  of  large  cities  and  towns.  Rotterdam,  the  chief 
commercial  city,  is  situated  on  the  River  Maas,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine, 
eighteen  miles  from  the  seacoast.  The  river  has  a  natural  depth  of  only  five 
feet,  but  it  has  been  so  deepened  as  to  admit  the  largest  ships.  This  city  carries  on 
most  of  the  commerce  of  the  German  Rhine  district,  and  has  also  a  great  share  of 
the  colonial  trade.  Amsterdam,  the  constitutional  capital  and  the  largest  citj-,  is 
situated  on  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  ancient  harbor  having  become  shallow,  the  North 
Sea  Canal  was  recently  built,  thereby  connecting  the  city  directly  with  the  coast.  It 
is  an  important  industrial  centre,  especially  in  making  marketable  the  raw  materials 
of  the  Dutch  colonies.  The  city  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  banking  transactions 
of  the  world,  and  is  still  a  great  financial  centre.  It  is  a  leading  diamond-market, 
diamond-cutting  being  one  of  the  most  important  industries.  The  Hague  is  the 
actual  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  a  political,  social,  and  educational  centre,  rather 
than  an  industrial  one.     Haarlem  is  the  centre  of  the  flower-cultivating  district. 

COLONIAL  POSSESSIONS.  —  The  colonial  possessions  of  The  Netherlands  com- 
prise Surinam,  (u-  Dutch  (Juiana,  in  South  America,  Curasao  and  five  others  of  the 
West  India  Islands,  and,  by  far  the  most  important,  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Tliese 
include  the  greater  part  of  Borneo,  the  western  half  of  New  Guinea,  Sumatra, 
Java,  Celebes  Island,  and  the  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands.  The  total  colonial  popu- 
lation, about  36,000,000,  is  seven  times  that  of  the  mother  country. 

Most  of  the  trade  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  with  the  mother  country, 
although  Great  Britain,  France,  and  China  have  each  a  share  of  it.  The  leading 
exports  are  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  rice,  indigo,  cinchona,  tobacco,  and  tin.  Most  of 
these  are  sent  to  The  Netherlands,  though  about  half  the  rice  is  sent  from  the  otlier 
islands  to  Borneo  and  to  Cliina.     Raw  sugar  is  exported  from  Java  to  Great  Britain, 


coMMERci. I  /.  ai:n<!UA PHY 


119 


ha,  sugar,  fruits,  cot- 
Minor  exports  are 
of  tlie  fliii'f  sources 
il.     New  Guinea  and 


anil  cotton  manufactures  and  iron  goods  arc  iMijKU-tcd  in  oxcliange.  The  T'nilcd 
States  imports  coffee,  sugar,  and  spices,  to  the  auniuil  vahie  of  about  $1.' 1,000,1 100 ; 
returning  oidy  $1,500,000  worth,  nearly  all  of  it  kerosene. 

Borneo  has  rich  coal  deposits.  Spices,  camphoi-,  gutta-per 
ton,  and  tobacco  are  exported. 

Sumatra  produces  coal,  and  exports  coffee  and  tobacco, 
rice,  sugar,  and  spices.  The  adjoining  island  of  Banca  is  oiU' 
of  tin,  the  metal  from  these  mines  being  the  purest  in  tlie  woi 
Celebes  are  eomniercially  undeveloped. 

Java,  the  most  important  of  all  Dutch  colonies,  together  with  the  neighboring 
island  of  Madura,  supports  more  than  half  the  population  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 
The  greater  part  of  the  land  of  Java  is  owned  and  cultivated  by  agents  of  the 
liorae  government.  On  the  lowlands,  rice,  sugar,  and  cotton  are  the  staple  crops  ;  at 
higher  altitudes,  coffee,  tea,  and  fruits  are  raised.  Eice  is  the  largest,  but  coffee  is 
the  most  valuable,  of  these  crops.  Cinchona  and  tobacco  are  also  produced.  Batavia 
is  the  largest  city  of  Java,  and  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  harbor 
is  poor,  but  its  commerce  is  considerable.  Macassar,  in  the  southwest  of  Celebes 
Island,  and  Surahaija,  on  the  east  coast  of  Java,  are   other  important  seaports. 

The  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands,  export  cloves  and  nutmegs  in  great  quantities. 

Surinam,  situated  between  British  and  French  Guiana,  has  an  area  about  three 
times  as  gi-eat  as  that  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  a  very  sparse  population, 
mainly  of  blacks.  The  principal  exports  are  sugar,  rum,  and  coffee.  The  com- 
merce of  the  Dutch  West  Indies  is  relatively  of  little  consequence. 


QUESTIONS 


Describe  the  geographical  situation  of  The 
Netherlands.  What  is  its  comparative  area  ?  — 
population  ?  What  is  the  annual  value  of  the 
commerce  of  The  Netherlands  ?  What  is  the 
nature  of  the  surface  of  the  country  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  its  facilities  for  commerce  ? 

To  wliat  countries  are  most  of  the  exports  of 
The  Netherlands  sent  ?  What  proportion  of  the 
imports  come  from  the  same  countries  ?  What 
are  our  principal  imports  from  The  Nether- 
lands ?  Where  are  the  coffee  and  tin  imported 
by  us  from  that  country  produced?  [Ann. — 
In  the  Dutch  East  Indies.]  Name  our  chief  ex- 
ports to  The  Netherlands. 

What  Dutch  manufactures  are  articles  of  ex- 
port ?  What  is  tlie  principal  motive  power  in 
Dutch  industries  ?  What  results  from  the  lack 
of  mineral  deposits  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the 
fisheries  of  Holland  ? 

Describe  the  situation  and  trade  of  Rotterdam, 


—  of   Amsterdam.     What  city   is  the  capital? 
Of  what  industry  is  Haarlem  the  centre  ? 

Wliat  are  the  chief  colonial  possessions  of 
The  Netherlands?  With  what  foreign  coun- 
tries is  most  of  the  Dutch  East  India  commerce 
conducted  ?  What  are  the  chief  exports  of  these 
colonies  ?  What  are  the  principal  commer- 
cial exchanges  of  Java  with  Great  Britain  ? 
What  are  our  own  imports  from  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  ?  What  item  constitutes  the  bulk  of  our 
exports  to  these  colonies  ?  Name  some  products 
and  exports  of  Borneo,  —  of  Sumatra.  What 
island  is  the  most  important  of  all  Dutch  colo- 
nies ?  What  are  its  lowland  products?  —  its 
highland  products  ?  What  city  is  the  capital 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  ?  Name  other  impor- 
tant seaports.  What  are  the  leading  products 
of  the  Moluccas  ?  Where  is  Surinam,  and  what 
are  its  exports  ? 


120  COMMERCIAL    GEOGliAPIIY 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE    REPUBLIC    OF    BRAZIL 


Brazil  became  a  republic  by  peaceful  revolution  late  in  the  year  1889.  It  is 
the  largest  country  of  South  America,  containing  nearly  half  the  area  of  the  con- 
tinent. Its  extent  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  United  States  including  Alaska, 
and  the  estimated  population  is  eighteen  millions.  Portuguese  is  the  language  of  the 
people,  Brazil  being  the  only  one  of  the  South  American  nations  in  which  Spanish 
is  not  the  national  language.  Although  the  coast-line  extends  four  thousand  miles, 
yet  there  are  few  good  harbors ;  those  of  Rio  Janeiro,  Recife,  or  Pernambuco,  Bahia, 
and  Belem,  or  Para,  being  the  best.  Prom  the  coast  the  land  of  the  southern  part 
gradually  rises  toward  the  interior,  until  it  reaches  a  height  of  from  three  to  five 
thousand  feet.  In  these  higher  lands  the  products  are  those  of  the  temperate  zone, 
while  along  the  coast  and  in  the  river  basins  the  vegetation  is  tropical.  Nearly  all 
of  the  productive  country  is  a  narrow  belt  of  land,  varying  from  fifty  to  four  hun- 
dred miles  in  width,  along  the  coast  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  Here  foreign 
energy  and  capital  are  mainly  centralized.  In  the  central  and  southern  parts  are 
extensive  undulating  plains,  devoid  of  timber  and  not  very  fertile. 

The  finances  of  Brazil  have  been  poorly  managed,  and  the  national  debt  and 
the  burden  of  taxation  have  increased  year  by  year.  The  native  freeborn  popular 
tion,  numbering  two-thirds  of  the  whole  people,  is  thriftless,  and  the  recent  abolition 
of  slavery  has  added  to  the  difficulties  of  the  industrial  situation.  Immigration  has 
been  looked  to  as  a  remedy,  and  has  added  largely  to  the  prosperity,  especially  of 
the  southern  states.  Brazil  has  hitherto  been  unable  fully  to  utilize  her  natural 
resources,  which  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other  South  American  state. 

The  yearly  commerce  of  Brazil  is  estimated  at  over  $300,000,000  in  value. 
Two-thirds  of  the  exports  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  while  half  the  imports  are  manufactured  goods  from  Great  Britain. 
Thirty  years  ago  the  amount  of  our  trade  with  Brazil  was  less  than  $15,000,000; 
it  now  exceeds  $70,000,000,  owing  chiefly  to  our  increased  import  of  coffee.'  This 
product,  of  which   Brazil  grows  more  than  half  the  world's   supply,  is  the  chief 

'  In  1899  Brazil  exported  to  the  United  States  products  to  the  value  of  §57, 875,000.  Coffee 
was  by  far  the  largest  export,  being  valued  at  $41,1 19,000.  JUibber  was  valued  at  §14,977,000  ;  sugar, 
$2,317,000 ;  and  hides  at  $2,485,000 ;  other  articles  of  less  value  were  cocoa,  fruits,  wool,  lumber, 
drugs,  etc. 

Thf  imports  into  V,r:\7\\  from  thr  Uiiitrrl  States  in  1899  aggregated  $11,45.3,000.  Wheat  flour 
was  .$L',."iM.iHiii  ;    |irM\i~iMi,>  ili,,f   :iii,l  |M,il.  pniducts),  $1,075,000;   cotton  goods,  $407,000;   iron 

and  strri  -: U.  sld^. aiii.iL.  ^  ;iimI  ,  mi^.  .?-J14,000;  kerosene  and  other  oils,  §1,628,000;  and 

of  less  valur,  liiiulin-,  m.ilicijus,  aniL;s,  jrwclry,  ftc. 


COMMEHCIAI.    (iEtiailAI'llY  •  121 

ex]K)rt.  Nearly  th(>  whnlc  ci-dp  is  takni  liy  the  Tnitcd  States,  ouv  iiiipoH,  in  iS'M 
being  over  070,000,00(1  iioiuuls.  This  crop  has  always  proved  profitable,  and  the 
production  is  steadily  increasing.'  Sugar  was  once  a  valuable  export,  as  was  also 
cotton  ;  but  the  shipments  of  both  have  fallen  off.  Tobacco  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  the  demand  for  the  crop  is  steadily  increasing;  india-rubber,  from  the  Amazon 
valley,  and  hides  furnish  valuable  products.  These  six  articles  form  four-fifths  of 
the  total  exports.  Commerce  between  Brazil  and  the  United  States  is  one-sided. 
^Ve  buy  nearly  160,000,000  worth  of  her  products,  and  in  return  sell  about  $12,000,000 
worth.  Increased  steamship  communication,  and  a  better  knowledge  of  the  resources 
of  each  nation  by  the  otlier,  promises  increase  of  trade.     (See  Note,  p.  64.) 

While  Brazil  is  primarily  a  land  of  plantations,  her  mineral  resources  are  of 
great  value.  They  comprise  gold,  coal,  iron,  salt,  and  precious  stones,  the  latter  being 
found  in  greater  variety  than  in  any  other  country,  ('oal  is  mined  iu  the  south,  and 
the  most  celebrated  diamond-mines  are  at  Serro  do  Frio. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Amazon,  comprising  more  than  one-third  of  the  total  area, 
is  covered  with  forests  which  contain  some  of  the  most  valuable  woods  known  to 
commerce.  The  great  industry  of  the  valley  is  that  of  rubber-getting,  which  is 
almost  entirely  in  the  liands  of  the  half-civilized  mixed  Indian  population ;  and  these 
have  injured  great  rubber-producing  tracts  by  improper  treatment  of  the  trees.  (See 
page  184.) 

Para,  or  Belem,  the  only  good  harbor  on  the  north  coast,  is  the  port  through  which 
the  commerce  of  the  Amazon  passes.  From  this  point  passengers  can  ascend  the 
river  by  steamer  to  points  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  the  interior  of  Brazil.  Though  these 
steamers  traverse  a  vast  forest  region,  they  are  dependent  for  fuel  upon  imported  coal, 
what  energy  the  people  along  the  river  possess  being  expended  in  collecting  rubber. 
The  government  has  endeavored  to  attract  immigration  to  the  Amazon  valley ;  but  the 
imhealthful  climate,  low  rate  of  wages,  and  distance  from  markets,  have  prevented 
development. 

Eio  Janeiro  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  The  pojmla- 
tion  (674,071!)  is  about  e(|ual  to  that  of  Baltimore.  It  is  the  greatest  coffee- nuxrket 
in  the  world,  and,  next  to  Buenos  Ayres,  the  most  important  commercial  centre  in 
South  America.  As  is  the  case  with  most  South  American  capitals,  trade  is  mainly 
in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  harbor  is  four  miles  wide  and  twelve  long,  and  the 
largest  ships  can  enter  it. 

Pernambuco.  or  Recife,  is  the  outlet  for  the  product  of  the  sugar  country  lying 
about  it.  Bahia.  similarly  situated,  exports  cotton,  coffee,  and  rum.  A  submarine 
cable  connects  I'.ahia  with  Lisbon. 

'  Concerning  the  coffee  of  Brazil,  Professor  Alexander  .\ga.ssiz  wrote :  "  More  than  half  of 
the  coffee  consumed  on  the  globe  is  of  Brazilian  origin.  And  yet  this  coffee  has  by  itself  little 
reputation,  and  is  even  gi'eatly  underrated,  because  a  great  de.al  of  the  best  product  of  the  Brazilian 
plantations  is  .sold  under  the  name  of  Java  and  Mocha.  The  so-called  Mocha,  considered  the  finest 
of  all  coffees,  is  often  nothing  but  the  small,  round  beans  growing  ut  the  summit  of  the  Brazilian 
plant,  very  carefully  selected  and  prepared." 


122 


CO.VMER CIA  L    GEOGRA  PHY 


The  connnerce  of  the  United  States  with  Brazil  from  188G  to  1892  showed  a 
healthful  increase.  In  1S8G  exports  to  the  United  States  were  in  round  numbers, 
$41,000,000,  and  in  1899  over  $57,000,000.  The  imports  from  the  United  States 
increased  from  six  and  and  a  half  millions  in  188(5  to  over  twelve  millions  in  1899.^ 

The  wonderful  adaptability  of  the  soil  and  climate  for  the  production  of  the 
coffee  plant  in  Brazil  has  been  a  principal  source  of  wealth  to  the  people  and 
revenue  to  the  government,  and  as  coffee  consumption  is  constantly  increasing,  so 
this  South  American  state  has  in  this  product  alone  the  promise  of  financial  pros- 
perity. The  export  of  coffee  from  Brazil  to  the  United  States  in  1899,  amounting 
to  670,000,000  pounds,  and  valued  at  $30,000,000,  showed  an  increase  in  twenty 
years  of  nearly  380,000,000  pounds.  The  sugar-cane  will  thrive  in  all  parts  of 
Brazil,  but  the  low  prices  of  recent  years  have  diminished  the  product  here  as  well 
as  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  stated  on  the  authority  of  "  The  Bureau  of  American 
Republics  "  that  Brazil  alone  could  in  four  years  supply  the  sugar  demand  of  the 
whole  United  States. 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  the  comparative  area  of  Brazil  ?  What 
is  the  national  language  ?  What  i.s  the  extent 
of  the  coast-line  of  Brazil  ?  Nnnio  some  impor- 
tant ports.  What  is  the  iliIimv  ..f  ilic  surface 
of  the  country?  What  is  ilic  siiii:ilinii  of  the 
more  productive  sections  ''  1  iiscriljr  the  surface 
in  the  central  and  southern  parts. 

What  LS  the  industrial  condition  of  Brazil  ? 
How  is  this  to  be  accounted  for  ?  What  is  said 
of  the  annual  immigration  ? 

What  proportion  of  the  total  commerce  of 
Brazil  is  with  the  United  States  ?  —  with  Great 
Britain  ?  From  what  country  does  Brazil  de- 
rive her  principal  imports  ?  Of  what  do  these 
chiefly  consist  ?  Wliat  can  you  say  of  the 
growth  of  our  commerce  with  Brazil  ?  What 
is    our  principal    import  from  that    country  ? 


What  Brazilian  products  together  constitute 
four-fifths  of  her  total  exports  ?  How  do  our 
imports  from  Brazil  compare  with  our  exports 
to  tliat  cotintry  ?  What  commercial  phrase 
expresses  this  situation  briefly  ?  \_Ans.  —  '•  The 
balance  of  trade  is  against  us."]  Owing  to  wliat 
causes  is  this  unfavorable  situation  likely  to  be 
improved  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  mineral  resources  of 
Brazil  ?  —  of  her  forest  area  ?  What  is  the  chief 
industry  of  the  Amazon  valley  ?  What  is  the 
leading  export  of  Para  ?  Describe  the  situation 
of  Rio  Janeiro.  Of  what  product  is  it  the  world's 
principal  market  ?  What  are  tlie  chief  exports 
of  Pernambuco  ?  —  of  Bahia  ?  What  means  of 
telegraphic  connection  between  Brazil  and  Eu- 
rope ? 


1  Trade  with  Brazil  reached  its  highest  point  of  development  under  the  reciprocity  treaty  of 
1801,  culminating  in  1892,  when  exports  to  the  United  States  were  §18,000,000,  and  imports 
§14,000,000.     Since  then  both  exports  and  imports  have  gradually,  but  not  uniformly,  decreased. 


COMMKJt CIA  L   aEuaUA  I'll Y 


CHAPTER   VfTT. 

THE   KINGDOM   OF   BELGIUM 

Hklgium,  the  smallest  country  of  Eiiroi)e,  lies  between  the  southeru  boundary  of 
Tlie  Netherlands  and  the  Ardennes  Mountains,  from  which  the  laud  slopes  to  the  plain 
at  the  mouth  of  the  llhine.  Its  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  state  of  Maryland ; 
the  population  is  more  than  six  times  as  great,  being  denser  than  in  any  other  equal 
area  in  the  world,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  lower  Nile  valley.  Belgium 
has  been  described  as  "  one  great  town."  The  prosperity  of  the  country  depends 
chiefly  on  manufacturing.  Yet  there  are  large  returns  from  the  many  small  farms 
into  which  the  laud  is  divided.  The  dense  population  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  various  manufactures  are  favored  by  mineral  deposits,  and  by  extraordinary 
facilities  for  commerce,  both  foreign  and  internal.  The  coast  of  Belgium  is  only 
forty  miles  in  extent,  and  is  generally  low,  requiring  dikes  to  protect  the  country 
from  inroads  by  the  sea.  The  river  Scheldt  traverses  the  kingdom  from  the  south- 
west to  the  northwest ;  it  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  the  French  border.  Flow- 
ing nearly  parallel  to  the  Scheldt,  acrosg  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom,  is  .the 
Meuse,  also  navigable.  These  and  other  small  rivers  are  connected  by  canals,  which, 
with  the  rivers,  have  an  aggregate  length  of  over  a  thousand  miles.'  There  is  a  fine 
system  of  railways,  three-fourths  of  which  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  State. 

About  one-sixth  of  the  area  of  Belgium  is  forest.  Nearly  all  the  rest  is  in  a 
high  state  of  cultivation,  chiefly  by  small  landholders;  and  heavy  crops  are  raised 
relative  to  the  area  tilled.  The  mineral  wealth  is  very  great.  The  coal  mined  — 
nearly  20,000,000  tons  yearly  —  is  more  than  is  produced  by  any  other  country  of 
continental  Europe.  Iron  and  zinc  are  also  extensively  mined.  The  manufactures 
of  iron  and  steel  are  important,  but  fabrics  of  cotton  and  woollen  are  the  most 
valuable  commercial  products.  Flax  raising  and  spinning  is  one  of  the  oldest  indus- 
tries of  the  country ;  and  in  fine  linen  and  carpetings,  Belgium  has  a  world-wide 
reputation.  Manufactures  of  laces  and  of  paper  are  also  important.  Butter,  eggs, 
and  vegetables  are  exported  in  great  quantities  to  the  neighboring  countries. 

In  value  the  annual  commerce  of  Belgium  is  nearly  $800,000,000,  most  of  it  with 
England,  France,  and  Germany.     Our  own  imports  from  Belgium  are  chiefly  glass 

1  A  canal  lias  been  constructed  in  Belgium  in  which  the  boats  are  hoisted  from  one  level  to 
another  by  hydraulic  elevators  instead  of  by  locks.  This  canal  extends  from  the  coal  regions  in 
the  interior  to  Brussels,  crossing  several  other  canals  at  the  same  grade,  so  that  Belgian  coal  can  he 
carried  directly  by  boat  to  Paris,  as  well  as  to  the  principal  towns  in  Belgium  and  The  Netherlands. 
The  bo!its  are  towed  at  the  low  level  into  an  immense  tank,  which  is  submerged  in  the  canal.  The 
gates  are  then  closed;  and  the  tank,  which  rests  on  the  pistons  of  a  huge  hydraulic  elevator,  is 
raised  to  the  upper  level,  where  connection  is  made  with  the  next  section  of  the  canal  by  means 
of  double  gates,  and  the  boat  proceeds  on  its  w.iy. 


124 


COMMER  CIA  L   GEO  Gil  A  PHY 


and  glassware,  iron  and  steel  products,  and  flax  and  hemp,  raw  and  manufactured. 
Our  exports  to  Belgium  are  chiefly  cotton,  cereals,  meat-products,  and  kerosene.' 

From  the  point  of  view  of  her  total  commerce  it  may  be  said  that  Belgium 
imports  raw  and  textile  materials,  and  exports  yarn,  cloth,  coal,  and  metal  goods. 

As  a  part  of  the  ancient  Netherlands,  Belgium,  with  Holland,  once  controlled 
most  of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  The  ships  of  Antwerp  and  other  ports  vied 
with  those  of  the  great  commercial  cities  of  Italy.  Stimulated  by  the  amount  of 
•iw  materials  these  ships  gathered,  industries  sprang  up  and  flourished. 

Antwerp,  the  chief  seaport  of  Belgium,  is  still  pre-eminently  a  commercial  city, 
though  relatively  its  commerce  is  not  so  great  as  it  was  three  or  four  centuries  ago. 
It  is  situated  near  the  head  of  an  estuary  of  the  river  Scheldt,  and  not  only  carries 
on  a  great  part  of  the  commerce  of  Belgium,  but  also  a  large  in-transit  trade  from 
Switzerland  and  the  Rhine  districts  of  Germany.  The  German  export  is  largely  of 
iron  and  steel.  Grain  and  petroleum  from  the  United  States  are  received  at  this 
point.  Antwerp  is  a  great  industrial  centre  for  cotton  goods,  carpets,  laces,  silk 
goods,  and  ship-building.  Ghent,  which  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Scheldt,  is 
a  great  factory-town.  Sugar,  from  the  sugar-beet,  extensively  cultivated  in  Bel- 
gium, and  cotton  and  linen  goods,  are  the  principal  manufactures.  Brussels  is  not 
only  the  political  but  the  industrial  capital.  Its  carpets  have  a  world-wide  repute, 
and  lace-making  is  one  of  the  chief  industries.  Liege  is  best  known  for  its  manu- 
fp'itures  of  iron,  woollen  goods,  and  straw  hats;  Verviers,  for  its  woollens;  and 
Mechlin,  for  its   laces. 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  the  geographical  situation  of  Belgium  ? 
—  its  corapanitive  area? — population?  To 
what  is  the  density  of  population  to  be  attrib- 
uted ?  What  is  tlio  e.\tent  of  coast  ?  What  is 
tlie  nature  of  the  surface  near  the  coast-line  ? 
Describe  the  river  Scheldt,  —  tlie  Meuse.  What 
can  you  say  of  the  waterways  of  Belgium  ? 
How  are  most  of  the  railways  managed  ? 

What  proportion  of  the  aiea  of  Belgium  is 
under  cultivation  ?  What  niinorals  nre  hugely 
produced  ?  What  can  yon  say  of  ilic  r,rl.;i:iii  out- 
put of  coal  ?  Name  the  leailini;  irianiil;n-iiirps 
of  the  country.  What  agricultural  prudticts  are 
exported  ?    With  what  countries  are   most  of 


the  commercial  exchanges  of  Belgium  con- 
ducted ?  What  are  the  principal  exports  of 
Belgium  to  the  United  States  ?  From  the  point 
of  view  of  her  total  trade,  what  are  Belgium's 
chief  imports?  —  her  chief  exports? 

What  are  the  situation,  industries,  and  ex- 
ports of  Antwerp?  What  country  sends  iron 
to  Antwerp  for  export  ?  What  American  prod- 
ucts are  largely  imported  tliere  ?  Wh.at  are  the 
manufactures  of  Ghent  ?  How  does  the  coni- 
mercf  of  (ihenl  reach  the  sea  ?  What  are  the 
piinci]ial  industries  of  Brussels?  —  of  Li^ge  ? 
—  of  Verviers?  — of  Mecldin  ? 


1  In  spite  of  the  density  of  its  i)opulation,  Belgium  is  almo.st  the  only  country  of  Eurojje  ' 
year  by  year  increases  the  total  number  ut  its  inhabitaiit.s  by  immigration. 


COMMEIICIAL   UEuaUAl'llY  125 


CHAPTER   IX. 

THE   KINGDOM    OF   ITALY 

Italy  is  a  great  peninsula  projecting  from  central  Europe  southward  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Apennines  Mountains  extend  through  its  entire  length. 
Flowing  eastward  into  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  is  the  Po,  the  largest  and  the 
only  important  river.  It  drains  most  of  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  its 
valley  is  a  densely  peopled  plain  of  great  fertility.  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  a  number 
of  smaller  islands  along  the  coast,  are  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  population  of 
Italy,  about  30,000,000,  is  somewhat  smaller  than  that  of  France,  and  the  area, 
110,000  square  miles,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Colorado. 

Italy  is  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  New  England  states,  but  its  climate 
is  drier  and  much  warmer.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are  grain,  fruits,  olives, 
hemp,  flax,  and  cotton.  The  more  fertile  areas  frequently  produce  several  field-crops 
in  the  year.  Silk-culture  is  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  than  in  any 
other  country  except  China,  the  mulberry-tree  being  carefully  cultivated  in  many 
sections  of  the  country.  Grapes  are  extensively  grown,  and  wine-making  is  one 
of  the  most  important  industries.  As  a  wine-producing  country,  Italy  ranks  next 
to  France,  and  in  olive-culture  it  stands  first  among  nations.  The  hill-slopes  of 
Sicily  are  covered  with  olive  and  orange  groves,  while  the  level  country  is  one  great 
wheat-field.  Sardinia  produces  fruits  in  great  variety  from  its  fertile  soil ;  but  the 
chief  natural  wealth  is  its  mineral  deposits,  of  which  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  are 
the  more  important.  Silk  is  the  most  valuable  product,  forming  one-quarter  of  the 
total  exports.  The  manufactures  are  largely  of  an  artistic  nature,  consisting  of 
glassware,  laces,  mosaics,  and  carved  marbles  and  woodwork.  The  lack  of  coal  is 
a  hinderance  to  manufacturing  development,  as  very  little  is  mined  in  the  king- 
dom. Tliis  lack,  however,  is  partly  compensated  by  the  abundant  water-power  which 
the  natural  slopes  of  the  Apennines  and  Alps  provide.  Sulphur  is  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mount  Etna  in  Sicily,  marble  at  Carrara  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  kingdom,  iron,  sulphur,  tin,  and  lead  in  the  island  of  Elba,  and  lead,  zinc,  iron, 
and  copper  in  the  island  of  Sardinia.  Precious  coral,  sardines,  oysters,  and  anchovies 
are  the  best-known  products  of  the  fisheries. 

Most  of  the  export  trade  of  Italy  is  with  France  and  Austria-Hnngary.  The 
chief  imports  come  from  Great  Britain,  Austria-Hungary,  and  France.  The  leading 
exports  are  silk,  wine,  and  olive-oil ;  and  the  leading  imports  are  wheat,  raw 
textiles,  and  coal.     The  share  of  the   United  States    in    this    trade    is   increasing. 


126  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

consisting  of  imports  of  silk  and  fruits,  and  exports  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and 
petroleum.' 

The  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  are  united  by  railway ;  and  in  spite  of  the 
mountain  barrier  on  the  north,  connection  is  made  with  the  railway  system  of 
France  by  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  which  was  opened  to  traffic  in  1871.  It  is  seven 
and  one-half  miles  long.  Ten  years  later,  in  1881,  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel,  nine 
miles  long,  was  completed,  connecting  the  railway  system  of  Italy  with  that  of 
Switzerland.  In  spite  of  the  extensive  seacoast,  the  chief  exports  of  Italy  go  by 
rail  through  these  tunnels,  in  order  to  avoid  the  delays  and  cost  of  trans-shipment. 
This  applies  especially  to  silk,  wine,  and  olive-oil. 

There  were,  in  1897,  9,500  miles  of  railway  in  the  kingdom,  about  one-fourth  of 
which  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  government.  At  several  points  the  Apennines 
are  crossed  by  lines  of  railway  which  connect  the  more  important  roads  running 
northwest  and  southeast  along  the  two  coast-lines  of  the  peninsula.  In  several 
instances  these  lines  have  been  built  along  the  old  Koman  highways. 

The  Mediterranean  Sea  was  once  the  centre  of  the  commercial  world.  From 
its  geographical  situation  Italy  commanded  much  of  this  trade,  Venice  and  Genoa 
each  possessing  an  immense  commerce.  But  the  discovery  of  the  sea-passage  to 
India  changed  the  course  of  commerce,  and  led  to  a  decline  in  the  traffic  of  these 
ports.  The  recent  building  of  the  Suez  canal,  however,  is  tending  to  restore  to 
them  some  share  of  their  former  importance. 

Genoa,  on  the  northwestern  coast,  has  the  best  harbor  in  Italy,  and  conducts  the 
largest  share  of  foreign  trade. 

Naples,  the  largest  city,  ranks  next  to  Genoa  in  commercial  importance,  and  is 
the  centre  of  trade  for  the  southern  part  of  Italy.  It  has  extensive  manufactures 
of  silk. 

Venice,  built  upon  more  than  one  hundred  islands,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  is  the  outlet  for  shipments  from  the  valley  of  the  Po,  and,  like  other  Italian 
cities,  has  been  greatly  aided  by  railways. 

Milan  is  the  greatest  silk-manufacturing  centre  in  Italy,  being  second  in  this 
respect  only  to  Lyons  in  France,  and  has  also  important  cutlery  shops. 

Turin  has  a  trade  very  much  like  that  of  Milan. 

Palermo,  the  chief  Sicilian  port,  carries  on  a  large  export  trade  in  the  fruits 
and  wines  of  Sicily,  and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton. 

1  In  1898,  Italy  exported  goods  to  the  value  of  S240.000,000,  more  than  one-quarter  of  the 
whole  amount  being  silk  and  cocoons.  Wine,  sulphur,  oil,  eggs,  hemp  and  flax,  and  coral  were 
other  chief  exports  in  order  of  value. 

In  1898,  Italy  imported  goods  to  the  value  of  8282,000,000  ;  grain,  cotton,  coal,  silk,  machinery, 
timber,  hides,  wool,  and  fish  being  the  chief  items  in  order  of  value. 

The  United  States  exports  to  Italy  were  about  $25,000,000 ;  and  her  imports  from  Italy  about 
a  million  less,  the  largest  items  being  silk,  lemons,  and  sulphur.  Cotton,  tobacco,  kerosene,  and 
lumber  were  the  chief  items  of  export  to  Italy. 


COMM K n 1 7 .1  /,    U K nun. WHY 


127 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  the  geographical  situation  of  Italy  ? 
Describe  the  course  of  the  Kiver  Po.  Wliat 
islands  are  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ?  What 
is  the  comparative  area  of  the  kingdom?  — the 
comparative  population  ? 

What  are  the  chief  agricultural  products  ?  In 
what  industry  is  Italy  second  only  to  China? 
In  what  industry  second  only  to  France  ?  What 
are  the  field-products  of  Sicily?  — of  Sardinia? 
What  other  source  of  wealth  has  Sardinia? 
What  is  the  nature  of  a  large  part  of  the  manu- 
factures of  Italy?  What  product  forms  a  quarter 
of  the  total  exports  ?  What  special  disadvan- 
tage do  Italian  manufactures  labor  under? 
How  is  this  in  some  measure  compensated? 
Wliat  mineral  products  are  found  in  Sicily?  — 
in  Sardinia? — in  Elba?  To  what  country  is 
most  of  the  iron  of  Elb?,  exported  ?  What  are 
some  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries  ? 

With  wliat  country  is  the  bulk  of  the  export 
trade  of  Italy  carried  on  ?    From  what  countries 


do  the  bulk  of  the  imports  come  ?  What  are 
the  chief  exports  ?  —  the  chief  imports  ?  What 
products  are  mainly  imported  from  Italy  into 
the  United  States  ?  What  are  the  principal 
items  sent  to  Italy  by  the  United  States  ? 

By  what  means  is  Italian  commerce  with 
France  and  Switzerland  carried  on  ?  How  have 
the  tunnels  of  the  Alps  affected  the  sea-going 
trade  of  Italy  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  railway 
system  ? 

What  recent  engineering-work  has  contributed 
to  the  revival  of  Italian  commerce  ?  Give  some 
account  of  the  situation,  industries,  and  trade 
of  Genoa,  — of  Naples,  — of  Venice,  —  of  Milan, 
—  of  Turin,  —  of  Palermo.  Which  seaport  of 
Italy  conducts  the  largest  commerce  ?  What 
cities  have  extensive  silk  industries  ?  What 
city  affords  an  outlet  for  the  products  of  the 
valley  of  the  Po  ?  In  what  city  is  cutlery  manu- 
factured ?  In  what  city  are  there  considerable 
cotton  factories  ? 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE   REPUBLIC  OF   MEXICO 

jNIexico  ranks  next  after  Italy  in  the  amount  of  its  trade  with  the  United 
States.  The  area  of  the  conntry,  7(37,31()  square  miles,  is  about  three  times  as 
great  as  that  of  Texas,  and  the  population,  12,000,000,  is  six  times  as  large.  The 
population  is  densest  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  where,  owing  to  the 
higher  altitude  of  the  land,  the  climate  is  cool.  Three-fourths  of  the  people  are  of 
mixed  or  Indian  blood.  The  great  body  of  the  laborers  are  thriftless  victims  of 
the  land  system  which  has  permitted  the  accumulation  of  vast  estates  in  few  hands. 
The  purchase  by  foreigners  of  extensive  areas,  the  growth  of  the  railway  system, 
and  the  influx  of  immigrants,  are  tending  to  improve  the  industrial  situation. 

Mexico's  great  wealth  has  hitherto  consisted  in  her  mines  of  silver,  gold,  and 
copper.  It  is  estimated  that  the  silver-mines  have  furnished  more  than  half  the 
world's  supply  of  that  metal.  During  recent  years  the  industry  of  the  country  has 
been  drifting  away  from  mining  and  turning  to  agriculture.  Nearly  every  plant 
that  grows  between  the  equator  and  the  Arctic  circle  can  be  raised  in  Mexico,  and 
agricultural  products  of  every  sort  would  be  greatly  increased  by  a  good  system  of 
irrigation.  Cereals  are  the  chief  field-products  of  the  highlands;  in  the  lowlands 
hemp,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  the  staple  crops.  The  forest-products 
are  mahogany,  dye-woods,  gums,  and  spices.  Within  recent  years,  the  rearing  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  has  become  a  great  industry  in  the  north,  and  millions 
of  dollars  from  the  United  States  have  here  been  invested. 

Owing  to  the  deficiency  of  the  coal  supply,  which  has  been  one  of  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  the  growth  of  Mexican  commerce  and  industries,  manufactures  are 
carried  on  upon  a  small  scale.  Cotton-spinning  has  become  of  some  importance, 
affording  business  for  about  a  hundred  factories.  The  largest  of  these  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  Vera  Cruz,  near  which  city  there  is  valuable  water-power. 

As  with  other  Spanish-American  countries,  the  business  of  Mexico  is  largely 
in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Commerce  is  developing  very  rapidly;  and  the  United 
States  is  the  chief  selling-market,  taking  three-fourths  of  all  Mexican  exports, 
including  the  precious  metals.  Each  year  we  buy  more  heavily  of  Mexican  products ; 
and  this  increased  purchase  is  greater  than  the  increased  product,  showing  that  the 
commerce  of  Mexico  is  becoming  more  and  more  American.  The  precious  metals 
constitute  more  than  half  the  total  value  of  exports.  Apart  from  these  it  may  be 
generally  said,  that  Mexico  sells  mahogany,  dye-woods,  spices,  coffee,  hides,  and 
hemp;  and  buys  textile  fabrics,  articles  of  iron  and  steel,  and  leather  goods.  A 
large  share  of  the  manufactured  goods  imported  by  Mexico  come  from  France. 


coM.\n:i;i/,\r.  ar.ocuM'iiv  129 

Within  the  last  decade  the  Mexican  governnioiit  has  piionuraiiod  by  subsidies 
the  extension  of  the  railway  system  of  the  countiT,  and  tlic  important  towns  are 
now  connected  with  the  city  of  Mexico  by  rail.  The  northward-running  roads  have 
been  constructed  by  American  capitalists.  The  city  of  Mexico  now  has  excellent 
railway  connections  with  the  United  States,  and  is  but  four  days'  journey  from  New 
York.  Railways  cross  Mexico  from  the  Gulf  to  the  Pacific,  and,  with  their  projected 
branches,  will  give  the  country  a  complete  .system,  and  open  ])roductive  areas  to 
further  development.  The  completion  of  the  projected  Tehuantepec  interoceanic 
railway  promises  to  transform  southern  Mexico.  With  its  varied  mineral  products 
and  fertile  soil,  this  part  of  the  republic  has  always  been  regarded  as  the  richest 
section  of  the  country,  yet  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  not  been  commercially 
aece.ssible.  The  Tehuantepec  route  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco  will  be 
1,500  miles  shorter  than  the  Panama  route. 

The  new  route  will  make  Tehuantepec  an  important  commercial  port  of  Mexico 
on  the  Pacific  coast;  but  Acapulco,  situated  about  midway  between  the  northern  and 
southern  borders,  with  its  line  harbor,  gives  indications  of  becoming  the  chief 
shipping-port.  Both  Mazatlan  and  Guaymas  have  good  harbors.  Vera  Cruz  and 
Matamoras  are  the  chief  ports  on  the  Gulf  coast.  The  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz  is  not 
very  good,  though  it  is  the  port  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Matamoras  was  of  little 
consequence  until  the  recent  growth  of  the  railway  system.  Its  trade  is  now  rapidly 
extending,  not  only  with  other  Mexican  ports,  but  with  New  Orleans  and  other  ports 
of  the  United  States.  Tlie  City  of  Mexico,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  among  the 
capitals  of  the  Spanish-American  republics,  is  a  busy  commercial  centre,  being  at 
the  heart  of  the  railway  system  of  the  country.  Many  towns  that  once  had  active 
trade  are  now  mere  markets  of  supply  and  distribution  for  the  City  of  Mexico.* 


QUESTIONS 

What  are  the  comparative  area  and  popula-  and  by  what  means,  is  cotton-spinning  done  ? 

tion    of    Mexico  ?      Wiiy   liave    her    industries  Wliat  country  takes  tliree-fourlhs  of  all  Me.\i- 

been  in  a  backward   condition?    Wliat  causes  can  exports  except  the  precious  metals  ?    What 

are  tending  to  improve  the  industrial  situation  ?  general    statement  can    you    make  concerning 

What  is  the  most  valuable  mineral  product  ?  Mexican    commerce?      Wlience    does     Mexico 

With  what  important  mineral  is  Mexico  poorly  derive  most  of  her  manufactured  imports  ? 

supplied?      Name    the    principal    agricultural  What  can  yon  say  of  tlie  railways  of  Mexico? 

products, —the  forest  products.     What  can  you  Wliat  results  are  likely  to  follow  the  completion 

say  of  the  grazing  industry  ?  of   the  Tehuantepec   road?      Name   important 

What  effect   has   tlie   lack  of  coal  upon  the  Pacific  ports  of  Mexico, —Gulf  ports.     Of  what 

manufacturing  industries  of  Mexico  ?     Where,  interior  city  is  Vera  Cruz  the  port  ? 

'  In  1899  Mexico  exported  silver  bullion,  coin,  and  ore  to  the  value  of  867,258,000  ;  henequen, 
$18,711,000;  coffee,  $7,030,000;  cattle,  S4,72:!,000,  together  with  wood,  tobacco,  and  vanilla,  to  the 
total  amount  of  §138,478,000.  To  the  United  States  she  exported  a  total  value  of  $22,995,000,  of 
which  henequen,  jute,  and  other  tpxtilo  grasses  amounted  to  one-tifth.  During  ten  years  the  exports 
of  the  l.'nited  States  lo^Irxi.  ..  li:iv.   hk.iv  than  doubled. 

The  imports  from  iln  I  n  '  I  m  m  >  in  1899  amounted  ta  §25,483,000,  of  which  iron  and  steel 
products  amounted  to  .s7  jni.iinn.  i  ml,  i-  .and  its  products,  $1,425,000;  coal,  $1,424,000 ;  cotton 
and  cotton  goods,  .Sl,110,uuu  ,  miU,  .j;i;i',uuO. 


130  COMMERCIAL   GEOGllAPHY 


CHAPTER   XI. 

THE   EMPIRE  OF  JAPAN 

The  empire  of  Japan  consists  of  several. groups  of  islands  lying  off  the  east  coast 
of  Asia,  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  that  of  southern  Europe.  Four  of  these  islands 
are  large,  and  three  of  them  contain  almost  the  whole  population.  The  surface  is 
mountainous  and  volcanic,  and  the  low  grounds  and  valleys  that  contain  productive 
land  are  of  limited  extent.  The  rivers  are  short  and  of  little  commercial  conse- 
quence. The  area  of  the  empire,  about  160,000  square  miles,  is  three  times  that  of 
the  state  of  New  York ;  the  population,  43,000,000,  is  somewhat  more  than  that  of 
Austria-Hungary.  The  climate  of  Yezo,  the  northernmost  island,  is  severe,  and 
the  population  sparse  ;  in  Hondo  and  Shikoku  much  milder  and  more  equable  ;  while 
owing  to  the  Japan  Current  and  a  low  latitude,  Kiushiu,  tlie  southernmost  large 
island,  has  a  semi-tropical  climate. 

The  roads  of  the  country  are  primitive,  few,  and  poor;  tliere  is  little  live-stock; 
and  tillage  by  the  plough,  or  by  any  implement  more  modem  than  the  spade,  is 
scarcely  known.  Yet  agricultural  products  are  raised  in  variety,  —  cereals  in  the 
north,  and  rice,  tea,  and  silk  in  the  south,  —  all  of  them  due  more  to  the  industry 
and  skill  of  the  people  than  to  any  special  fertility  of  the  soil.  Kice  is  the  staple 
crop,  a  greater  area  being  devoted  to  its  cultivation  than  to  all  other  field-products. 
Coal,  iron,  copper,  and  silver  are  extensively  mined,  —  coal  in  Yezo,  and  iron  in 
Hondo.  Coal  is  a  considerable  export  to  neighboring  countries,  —  and  even  to  Cali- 
fornia and  the  western  countries  of  South  America. 

In  manufactures  the  Japanese  display  great  skill,  not  only  in  the  goods  they 
have  made  for  generations,  but  also  in  imitating  the  products  of  Europe  and 
America,  many  of  which,  formerly  imported,  are  now  made  in  Japan.'  Eaw  silk 
and  silk  fabrics  are  the  leading  Japanese  manufactures.  Another  ancient  industry 
is  that  of  lacquer-work,  and  in  this  their  proficiency  is  so  well  recognized  that  the 
name  "Japanning"  is  generally  adopted  throughout  the  world  for  similar  work. 
The  mulberry -tree,  on  which  the  silk  industry  depends,  is  cultivated  in  tlie  south ; 
the  lacquer-tree  mainly  in  the  north. 

In  1852  the  United  States  sent  an  expedition  to  Japan  under  Commodore  Perry, 
and  two  years  later  succeeded  in  forming  a  commercial  treaty  with  that  country. 
Japan,  which  up  to  that  time  had  excluded  all  foreigners,  unwillingly  opened  a  few 
ports,  known  as  treaty  ports,  to  commerce  with  the  outside  world.     During  recent 

'  No  other  country  gives  so  much  in  many  small  and  fancy  manufactured  articles  that  are 
artistic  and  beautiful,  for  so  little  money,  as  Japan. 


MMi:nci.\L    ClKKillM'lIY 


131 


years  tlio  nation  has  luado  reniarkalilc  progrpss.  Tlip  Japancso  are  natural  tradors, 
auil  their  products  are  in  great  demand  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  exports 
are  silk,  which  furnishes  more  than  one-third  the  total  exj)ort  trade ;  tea,  most  of 
which  comes  to  the  United  States ;  rice,  and  coal.  The  imports  are  mainly  cotton 
and  woollen  goods  and  petroleum.  Our  own  trade  with  Japan  may  be  summai-ized 
thus :  we  buy  silk  and  tea,  and  sell  to  her  petroleum.'  In  value  about  one-tenth  of 
our  imports  from  this  country  consists  of  hand-worked  articles,  both  useful  and  orna- 
mental, that  display  the  marvellous  ingenuity  and  delicacy  of  Japanese  workman- 
ship. Japan  now  has  a  well-equipped  railway  system  of  over  ;},000  miles,  and  the 
cotton-spinning  industry  is  rajjidly  increasing,  and  her  annual  trade  has  doubled 
since  1885. 

Japan  has  many  good  harbors,  and  several  treaty  ports ;  but  the  bulk  of  her 
foreign  commerce  is  done  at  Yokohama,  which  is  the  great  national  port,  and  the 
main  distributing  centre  of  the  empire.  Tokio,  the  capital,  contains  a  population  of 
1,300,000.  Nagasaki  has  a  deep  harbor,  and  is  an  important  centre  of  the  coal-trade. 
The  chief  commercial  cities  are  connected  by  railway,  and  these  are  continually 
extending  and  improving  their  means  of  communication  and  transportation. 

Korea,  the  mountainous  peninsula  to  the  northeast  of  China,  employs  three- 
fourths  of  its  population  in  agriculture.  The  other  chief  industries  are  the  making 
of  cotton  and  grass  cloth,  thin  silks,  iron  and  brass  utensils,  all  of  which  are  for 
native  use.  The  chief  exports  are  rice,  beans,  hides,  and  ginseng.  Seoul  is  the 
capital. 

Formosa,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  ('hina,  has  through  the  Chino-Ja])anese  war 
of  1894-it.->  been  ceded  to  Japan.  This  island  has  an  important  trade  in  fine  tea,  most 
of  which  comes  to  the  United  States,  and  it  controls  the  camphor-trade  of  the  world. 


QUESTIONS 


Wliat  is  tlie  genin"aiihical  situation  of  .Japan  ? 
Wliat  can  you  say  of  its  surface  ?  Give  tlie 
comparative  area  and  population  of  the  empire. 
Describe  the  climate  of  the  four  principal  islaiiiis. 

How  is  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  carried  on  ? 
What  are  the  products  of  the  north  ?  —  of  the 
south  ?  What  is  the  chief  food-crop  ?  What 
minerals  are  extensively  mined  ?  Where  is  coal 
found  ?  —  iron  ?  In  what  section  of  Japan  is 
the  mulberry-tree  especially  cultivated?  —  the 
lacquer-tree  ?  What  industry  is  dependent  upon 
the  former  ?     What  industry,  upon  the  latter  ? 


What  are  "treaty  ports"?  What  are  the 
chief  exports  of  Japan  ?  —  the  imports  ?  To 
what  coinitry  is  most  of  the  tea-crop  exported  ? 
From  what  country  does  Japan  derive  its  supply 
of  petroleum  ?  Summarize  our  own  trade  with 
Japan.  In  what  class  of  workmanship  are  the 
Japanese  unrivalled  V 

Throni:li  what  ]invt  is;  tlii'  Imlk  of  .Tapanese 
trade  ciiirii.l  on;'     \:uiir  ilir  r,.|iiial  of  Japan. 

Forwiial  r\|,..|1   i-  \;m:i-akl  Ih.lm  n,  ll,y  ?     What 

can  you  saj  nf  ihe  luilwai.s  of  .lapaii  V    Describe 
Formosa  and  its  products. 


'  In  1898  the  United  States  imported  from  Japan  :  Silk  and  silk  goods  to  the  value  of 
518,.522,000  ;  tea,  §3,045.000  ;  porcelain,  rice,  and  other  articles  to  the  total  value  of  .$26,710,000. 

The  United  States  exported  to  Japan  the  same  year :  Petroleum,  flour,  clocks,  watches,  iron 
and  steel  goods,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  §17,264,000,  being  over  five  times  as  much  as  the  exports 


132  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER   Xir. 

THE  EMPIRE    OF  CHINA 

China  occupies  the  middle  eastern  part  of  Asia.  Its  area  is  nearly  one-fifth 
that  of  the  continent,  and  is  about  one-twelfth  of  the  entire  land  surface  of  the  globe. 
The  mountain-ranges,  where  rise  the  great  rivers  of  the  empire,  added  to  the  large 
amount  of  desert  land  in  the  western  part,  leave  the  remaining  area,  almost  entirely 
in  the  river  basins,  to  be  densely  inhabited  by  about  400,000,000  of  people. 

At  the  north  "is  the  Hoang-Ho,  or  Yellow  River.  It  is  nearly  3,000  miles  long, 
but  shallow  and  rapid.  It  often  overflows  its  banks  and  changes  its  bed,  so  that 
the  frequent  and  destructive  floods  justify  its  name,  "  the  Sorrow  of  Han."  The 
Yang-tse-Kianginthe  south  has  about  the  same  length  as  the  Hoang;  it  is  navigable 
for  1,000  miles.  Many  of  the  largest  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  the  empire  are 
on  its  banks,  and  nearly  half  the  population  of  the  country  is  settled  in  the  basin 
of  this  river.  Near  the  southern  boundary  of  China  is  the  Si-Kiang  or  West  Eiver, 
sometimes  called  the  Canton  River,  from  the  name  of  the  city  near  its  mouth.  Ves- 
sels of  light  draught  can  ascend  it  150  miles.  Another  important  waterway  is  the 
Grand  Canal,  which  for  700  miles  traverses  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the  empire, 
and  is  the  channel  of  communication  between  the  north  and  the  south.  The  roads 
and  canals  are  nearly  all  in  poor  condition,  and  much  of  the  Grand  Canal  has  fallen 
into  disuse. 

The  industries  of  China  are  in  a  backward  state;  though  the  Chinese,  like  the 
Japanese,  have  long  excelled  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  fabrics,  laces,  pottery,  and 
carved  ornaments.  Opium  is  a  staple  crop,  and  is  raised  in  nearly  every  province.' 
Tea  and  sugar  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  empire  is  especially  rich  in  deposits 
of  coal,  which  as  yet  have  been  comparatively  little  worked.  The  coal-fields  are 
estimated  to  be  twenty  times  as  extensive  as  those  of  all  Europe,  and  anthracite 
forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole.  In  course  of  time,  when  the  industries  of 
the  western  world  shall  have  gained  a  foothold  in  China,  national  progress  must  be 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  this  mineral. 

Until  about  forty  years  ago  China  strictly  excluded  foreigners  and  their  commerce. 
But  one  port  after  another  has  been  opened,  until  now  twenty-nine  treaty  ports  are 
free  to  vessels  of  all  nations.  Yet  China  has  not  shown  the  progressive  spirit  of 
Japan,  and  her  commerce  and  industries  are  less  fully  developed. 


'  In  the  western  provinces,  where  coin  is  scan  v.  ..i-iuni  t.ikes  the  place  of  money.  When 
starting  on  a  journey,  a  native  carries  liis  estimiitr.]  ,  x|mm.c.  m,  Uie  form  of  opinm,  soiling  here  and 
there  as  much  as  he  requires.  Kven  students  gun.-  u.  1'.  king  carry  their  fnnds  in  the  form  of 
opium. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAl'llY  133 

The  exports  are  alnuist  exclusively  .silk,  ami  silk  fabrics,  tea,  sugar  and 
straw-braid;  and  of  these  tea  forms  twu-lifths  of  the  total  value.  Owing  to  the 
increased  cultivation  of  the  poppy-plant,  the  importation  of  opium  is  steadily 
falling  off,  and  the  only  remaining  import  of  considerable  value  is  that  of  cotton 
goods.  But  few  wool-bearing  animals  are  reared  in  the  empire;  and  although  in  a 
great  part  of  the  area  the  climate  is  severe,  the  clothing  of  the  people  is  largely  of 
cotton,  being  padded  for  protection  in  the  winter  season.  Hence  the  extensive 
importation  of  cotton  goods.  Rice  is  an  important,  but  subordinate  import.  The' 
share  of  the  United  States  in  the  trade  of  China  is  comparatively  small.  We  import 
from  China  tea,  silk,  and  straw-braid,  and  send  in  exchange  cotton-cloth  and 
petroleum.' 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country  by  the  build- 
ing of  railways ;  but  the  dread  of  foreign  innovation,  and  of  the  industrial  changes 
that  must  result,  has  hitherto  frustrated  all  such  endeavors.  There  are  recent 
signs,  however,  that  the  immemorial  conservatism  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  fixity 
of  their  institutions,  both  political  and  social,  must  give  way  before  the  encroach- 
ments of  western  enlightenment  and  progress. 

Peking,  the  capital  and  metropolis  of  the  empire,  has  an  estimated  population  of 
500,000.  The  city  has  no  particular  industry,  and  foreigners  are  not  allowed  to  trade 
there.  Its  port,  Tientsin,  a  city  of  1,000,000  jiopulation,  has  considerable  foreign 
commerce ;  but  it  is  chiefly  important  as  a  terminus  of  the  Grand  Canal,  and  a  centre 
for  local  trade. 

Canton,  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Si-Kiang,  has  a  population  of  1,600,000, 
of  which  it  is  estimated  that  100,000  live  in  boats,  moored  in  rows  on  the  river. 
Many  factories  for  making  cloth,  especially  silk,  are  here. 

Shanghai,  a  port  about  half  way  between  Peking  and  Canton,  has  a  i)0i>ulation 
of  about  500,000 ;  but  its  commerce  is  greatly  crippled  by  the  silting  of  the  harbor, 
across  the  entrance  of  which  a  sandbar  has  formed.  Improvements  are  contemplated 
which  will  make  it  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  coast.  Hong  Kong,  commercially 
by  far  the  most  important  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  .Vsia,  is  a  liritish  possession, 
situated  on  an  island  near  the  mouth  of  Canton  River. 

Thibet  is  a  mountainous  province,  the  surface  of  which  is  over  12,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  has  some  caravan  trade,  and  is  commercially  best  known  for  its  wool- 
product.  This  is  clipped  from  the  Thibet  goat,  and  is  used  in  the  making  of  the 
famous  Cashmere  shawls. 


1  The  trade  of  China  is  mostly  with  Great  Britain,  Japan,  and  the  United  States,  the  majority 
being  with  Great  Britain.  The  principal  articles  sent  to  the  United  States  in  1899  were  silk  and 
silk  goods,  tea,  woods,  mattins,  hat.s,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  nearly  815,000,000,  while  we  .sent 
China  in  the  same  year  cotton  cloth  to  the  value  of  $9,844,000,  oils,  machinery,  etc.,  to  the  total 
value  of  $18,619,000. 


134 


COMMER CIA L   GEOGRAPH Y 


Q  UESTIONS 


What  can  you  say  of  the  area  of  China  ? 
What  is  the  estimated  population  ?  Give  some 
account  of  tlie  Hoang  River,  — of  the  Yang-tse- 
Kiang,  —  of  the  Si-Kiang.  What  artificial  water- 
way connects  the  north  of  China  with  the 
south  ? 

What  can  you  say  of  the  conJition  of  indus- 
try in  China?  —  the  manufactured  products ? 
What  are  the  chief  agricultural  products  ?  In 
what  mineral  is  China  especially  rich  ?  How  is 
the  abundance  of  coal  likely  to  affect  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  future  of  the  country  ? 

What  are  the  important  exports  of  China  ?  — 


the  imports?  IIow  is  the  great  importation  of 
cotton  goods  to  be  accounted  for  ?  Give  the 
items  of  our  own  trade  with  China. 

Locate  and  describe  Peking,  —  Tientsin,  — 
Canton,  —  Shanghai.  What  English  colony  is 
an  important  port  in  Chinese  trade  ?  What 
city  is  a  terminus  of  the  Grand  Canal  ?  What 
city  has  silk  factories  ? 

What  large  island  oft  the  coast  ?  What  prod- 
uct of  the  island  of  Formosa  is  largely  exported 
to  the  United  States  ?  What  are  the  exports  of 
Corea  ?  What  product  of  Thibet  is  especially 
noteworthy  ? 


COMMERCIAL   OEOOUAl'UY  135 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

OTHER  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE 

I.  THE  EMPIRE  OF  RUSSIA.  —  The  llussian  Eini.ire  consists  of  Russia  and 
Siberia.     The  former  is  in  Europe,  tlie  Latter  in  Asia. 

Russia  comprises  about  three-lifths  of  the  area  of  Europe,  and  has  a  population 
of  1.30,000,000.  Its  short  coast-line  is  low  and  flat.  The  central  part  is  a  plateau 
about  one  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  from  it  the  land  slopes  gradually 
toward  the  White  and  Baltic  seas  in  the  north,  and  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas  in 
the  south.  The  sluggish  rivers  are  generally  navigable,  furnishing,  in  connection 
with  the  canals,  so  vast  a  system  of  internal  communication  that  the  building  of 
railways  has  not  pressed  itself  as  a  necessity  upon  the  government. 

Though  a  great  portion  of  the  area  is  unfit  for  cultivation,  Russia  is  neverthe- 
less pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country.  In  the  extreme  north  the  climate  is 
rigorous;  the  southeast  is  an  ai'id  region,  and  the  interior  is  an  almost  unbroken 
forest.  The  western  part  of  the  empire,  between  the  Baltic  Sea  on  the  north  and 
the  Black  Sea  on  the  south,  is  fertile,  and  produces  abundant  crops.  Cereals  can 
be  grown  here  more  cheaply  than  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  this  region  is  the 
granary  of  the  continent.  The  wheat  crop  is  yearly  increasing  in  amount,  and  is  a 
strong  competitor  in  the  European  market  against  that  of  the  United  States. 
Flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  cultivated.  Fish  are  abundant  in  the  rivers  and  in 
the  Caspian  Sea,  sturgeon  being  the  chief  export  of  this  industry. 

The  mineral  products  include  gold,  silver,  lead,  platinum,  copper,  iron,  coal, 
rock-salt,  and  petroleum.  Mining  is  in  a  low  state  of  development,  owing  to  lack  of 
improved  methods,  remoteness  of  deposits,  and  poor  transportation  facilities;  but 
the  petroleum  fields  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea  are  worked  with  much 
energy.  Heretofore  they  have  been  difficult  of  access ;  but  a  railway  has  been  built 
to  connect  the  fields  with  Batum  and  Poti  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  a  pipe-line  is  now 
in  course  of  construction.  The  petroleum  produced  in  these  fields  is  greater  in 
amount  than  that  mined  in  the  United  States,  and  when  refined  has  higher 
illuminating  power. 

Though  mainly  a  producer  of  raw  materials,  Russia  has  also  considerable  man- 
ufactures. The  more  important  of  these  are  cotton  and  linen  goods,  leather,  and 
furs.  In  the  tanning  of  "  Russia  "  leather  great  perfection  has  been  attained,  but 
the  product  is  now  closely  imitated  in  other  countries.  In  making  sheet-iron  the 
Russians  are  unexcelled. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  over  a  million,  is  situated  on 
the    Neva  River  at  tlie   head   of   the   Gult  of   Finland.     Formerly  Kronstadt,  tlie 


136  COMMERCIAL   GEOGllAPHY 

Russian  naval  station,  was  tlie  port  of  St.  Petersburg;  but  in  1885  a  ship  canal  was 
built  to  the  capital,  which  has  resulted  in  diverting  to  it  the  commerce  once  belong- 
ing to  the  former  city.  St.  Petersburg  is  connected  with  the  large  rivers  of  the 
empire  by  canals,  and  with  the  producing  centres  by  railway.  It  is  the  centre  of  a 
great  trade  in  the  products  of  the  northern  part.  Industries  are  fast  increasing  in 
the  city  and  its  vicinity,  chiefly  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  linen  fabrics,  and 
iron  and  steel  goods. 

Riga,  the  ne.xt  seaport  in  importance,  is  situated  on  the  Baltic,  southwest  of 
St.  Petersburg.  Its  exports  are  flax,  linseed,  lumber,  hemp,  and  cereals;  and  the 
commerce  is  mainly  witli  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 

Lodz,  a  Polish  city,  is  important  for  manufactures  of  cotton  and  wool.  The 
growth  of  this  place  has  been  remarkable,  the  population  having  increased  tive-fold 
in  the  last  thirty  years. 

Archangel,  on  the  White  Sea,  has  a  great  summer  trade  in  the  products  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  empire,  such  as  flax,  linseed,  seal-skins,  and  hides.  Consider- 
able flax-spinning  is  done  inland,  and  the  product  is  exported  here. 

The  southern  part  of  Russia  is  better  supplied  with  railways  than  the  northern 
part.  Odessa,  the  seaport  for  the  basins  of  the  Dneiper,  the  Bug,  and  the  Dneister 
rivers,  is  rapidly  becoming  a  city  of  great  commercial  importance,  ranking  next  to 
St.  Petersburg.  Cereals  and  hides,  tallow,  and  wool  from  the  grazing  districts,  are 
the  leading  exports.  Flour-making  is  the  most  important  local  industry.  Odessa  is 
in  direct  steamship  communication  with  the  principal  Mediterranean  ports,  with 
Great  Britain,  and,  by  way  of  the  Suez  canal,  with  India,  China,  and  the  East. 

Several  minor  southern  ports — Taganrog,  Cherson,  Nikolaiev,  and  Sebastopol  — 
ship  grain  and  other  products  ;•  and  Batum  and  Poti,  on  the  east  of  the  Black  Sea, 
export  petroleum.  The  harbors  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Riga  are  blocked  with  ice 
from  three  to  five  months  in  the  year,  while  the  Black  Sea  ports  are  always  open. 

Astrakhan,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  the  seat  of  the  valuable  Caspian  fisheries.  The 
city  has  also  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  leather. 

Moscow  lies  in  the  heart  of  Russia,  and  is  tlie  railway  centre  of  the  empire. 
It  sends  cereals,  hemp,  flax,  furs,  and  other  products  of  the  interior,  to  St.  Peters- 
burg for  export,  and  distributes  throughout  the  empire  the  tea,  silk,  and  other  goods 
Wrought  from  Asiatic  countries,  as  well  as  the  manufactured  goods  of  western 
Europe.  Moscow  has  many  industries;  sugar-refining,  metal  and  wood  working, 
cotton,  woollen,  linen,  and  silk  weaving,  and  paper-making  being  the  most  notable. 
The  opening  of  rich  coal  deposits  near  this  city  has  proved  of  great  benefit  to  its 
industries. 

Warsaw,  in  the  extreme  west,  has  railway  communication  with  Germany,  and 
carries  on  a  great  export  trade  in  cereals  and  other  raw  materials  of  the  empire. 
The  opening  and  successful  working  of  coal-mines  in  its  neighborhood  have  led  to 
considerable  industrial  development,  the  main  item  of  which  is  cotton-manufacture. 
Kief  is  specially  noteworthy  for  its  leather-factories  and  sugar-refineries. 


COMMI'.nciAI.    CEixniAI'IIY  137 

A  peculiar  characteristic  of  iiilaiul  tnule  m  I{iissia  i;<  the  lioldiiii;  <if  annual  fairs,  where  mer- 
chants from  all  sections  of  the  eountry  meet  and  eany  on  an  excliang.'  <if  the  wares  of  western 
Europe  and  of  Asia,  as  well  as  of  tli<'  producls  of  tlic  dilfercnt  sections  of  the  empire.  The  largest 
of  these  fairs  is  held  every  July  at  Nijni  Novgorod,  275  miles  cast  of  Moscow.  It  is  on  a  great 
trade-route,  where  the  metal  and  other  wares  of  the  north  met  the  products  of  the  fields  of  the 
south,  the  fish  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  tea,  cotton,  and  silk  Iimih  1'.  isi;i.  rhina,  and  the  East.  The 
introduction  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Volga  has  greatly  m  i  i,>  I  ih-  importance  of  the  annual 
Nijni  Novgorod  fair,  which  is  held  near  the  river.  The  si  iil  A  ii-|.;il,iiion  of  the  town  is  about 
50,000,  but  at  the  time  of  the  fair  the  number  is  five  times  a-  jn  n .  Minnfiu'tiircvl  ._'oo(ls  form  a 
great  part  of  the  trade  ;  and  the  prices  of  many  of  the  prmln'  i~  mi  ili,  (  iii|.iir.  .  ,|.,  n  ill\  .1  cotton, 
wool,  silk,  and  iron  goods,  are  regulated  by  this  fair.  The  Imi.i1  njIu.  hI  thr  ii;in-.,i.  i  i-n^  annually 
consunnuated  here  is  estimated  at  $85,000,000.  Other  fans  an-  yia.ly  lu  1.1  ai  r^li.ira  and 
Jiluirk-nf,  towns  in  the  southwest. 

Nearly  all  Uic  foreign  commerce  of  Eussia  is  ctirried  on  with  Great  liiitaiii  and 
(iermaiiy.'  In  general  we  may  say  that  Ktissia  exports  cereals,  and  iiiiiiorfs  raw  tex- 
tiles and  coal.  The  United  States  takes  from  Eussia  wool  and  skins,  and  sells  her 
in  exchange  raw  cotton."  

Siberia,  the  vast  Asiatic  deijendency  of  Russia,  occupies  the  wlK)le  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  It  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  bletik  atid 
inhospitable  region ;  but  recent  explorations  have  shown  that  the  southern  part  of 
this  territory,  especially  along  the  valley  of  the  Amoor  River,  contains  extensive 
grain-growing  areas.  To  develop  this  region,  as  well  as  for  strategic  purposes  in  the 
east,  the  Russian  government  has  constructed  a  railway  to  connect  St.  Petersburg 
with  Vladivostok  and  Fort  Arthur  on  the  Yellow  Sea.  This  port  has  been  leased  by 
Russia  from  China  and  fortified.  The  neighboring  port  of  Talien-^van  is  open  to 
the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with  Moukden,  the  capital 
of  Manchuria.  With  this  newly  acquired  Russitui  province  of  China,  the  United 
States  has  had  a  growing  trade  in  cotton  goods.  (See  note,  p.  41.)  The  forest  area 
is  extensive,  and  fur-bearing  animals  are  abundant,  particularly  in  the  less  inhabited 
eastern  portion ;  and  furs  are  the  principal  export.  Before  the  discovery  of  gold 
in  California  and  Australia,  the  chief  supply  of  Europe  came  from  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  the  product  is  still  considerable  both  there  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Amoor  River.  Lead,  silver,  copper,  iron,  salt,  and  coal  are  also  pro- 
duced; but  improved  methods  have  not  been  generally  adopted.  The  greatest 
deposits  of  graphite  yet  discovered  are  in  Siberia,  and  much  of  the  world's  supply 
of  platinum  has  come  from  this  region.  Emeralds,  jasper,  topaz,  and  other  valuable 
stones,  are  also  found.  The  trade  in  these  products  is  as  yet  carried  on  almost 
entirely  by  caravans. 

Tobolsk,  a  small  city  near  the  Ural  Mouiitaitis,  on  ;i  bratich  of  the  Obi  River,  is 
the  centre  of  trade  in  corn,  salt,  timber,  and  fish. 

Vladivostok  is  the  chief  seaport  on  the  Pacific,  and  the  centre  of  trade  in  fitrs, 
gold,  and  dried  fish. 

1  As  an  interesting  item  of  export,  it  is  stated  that  in  1808  TJussia  exported  1,831,000,000  eggs, 
of  the  value  of  over  §15,000,000,  chiefly  to  Germany,  Austria,  and  France. 

-  The  total  commerce  of  Kussia  amounted  in  1898  to  nearly  5:118,000,000;  with  a  considerable 

excess  of  exports  over  imports. 


138  COMMERCIAL    GEOGUAI'HY 

II.  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  SWITZERLAND.  —  Switzerland  occupies  the  mountau. 
ous  region  lying  between  (rermany,  Au.stria-Hungary,  Italy,  and  France.  The  area, 
16,000  square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts ;  the  popula- 
tion is  3,000,000.  The  greater  part  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
cattle-raising,  and  the  leading  products  of  these  industries  are  cheese  and  condensed 
milk.     In  1898  the  export  of  these  articles  was  |)12,o81,000  in  value. 

Considering  the  natural  disadvantages  under  which  they  labor,  especially  the 
absence  of  any  considerable  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  the  Swiss  have  achieved  a 
high  rank  among  manufacturing  peoples.  The  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  country 
has  provided  abundant  water-power,  which  somewhat  compensates  for  the  lack  of 
coal;  but  a  large  part  of  the  manufactured  wares  of  Switzerland  is  literally  hand- 
made.    The  best-known  products  are  clocks  and  watches,  and  carved  woods. 

Nearly  all  the  raw  materials  are  imported,  and  the  bulk  of  exports  consists  of 
manufactured  goods.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  Switzerland  buys  cereals, 
and  raw  cotton  and  silk,  and  sells  clocks  and  watches,  silk  and  cotton  goods,  and 
cheese  and  condensed  milk.  The  United  States  imports  from  Switzerland  clocks 
and  watches,  laces  and  embroideries,  silk  goods  and  silk;  and  exports  to  Switzer- 
land a  variety  of  goods  of  much  less  value.'  Silk  manufactures  were  greatly 
stimulated  by  the  opening  of  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel  through  the  Alps,  thus  per- 
mitting the  direct  importation  of  raw  silk  from  Italy.  The  greater  part  of  the 
trade  of  Switzerland  is  conducted  with  the  four  nations  whose  borders  enclose  it, 
but  considerable  commerce  is  carried  on  with  other  countries,  especially  with  Great 
Britain.  The  Swiss  derive  a  large  revenue  from  tourists,  who,  to  the  estimated  num- 
ber of  a  million  annually,  visit  the  mountains  and  lakes  of  Switzerland  and  give 
employment  in  the  hotels  to  16,000  people. 

Geneva  is  the  centre  of  the  w^atch-  and  clock-making  industry,  the  work  being 
done  in  the  surrounding  villages.  Zurich  is  the  chief  educational  centre  and  largest 
city.  ]\Iost  of  the  cotton  and  silk  goods  are  manufactured  here.  The  city  also 
carries  on  a  large  in-transit  trade;  i.e.,  goods  destined  for  other  points  passing 
through  the  city  and  yielding  a  revenue  from  re-shipment. 


in.  THE  EMPIRE  OF  TURKEY.  —  Turkey  in  Europe  occupies  a  large  part  of 
the  Balkan  peninsula.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile ;  but  agriculture  is  carried  on  in 
a  primitive  way,  and  only  a  part  of  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  is  utilized.  Fruits 
are  extensively  grown,  and  raisins  form  the  largest  item  of  export.  Wheat,  cotton, 
and  tobacco  are  other  important  cultivated  crojjs.  On  the  slopes  of  the  Balkan 
Mountains  are  great  fields  of  roses  from  which  attar  of  roses  is  produced.     Grazing 

1  Germany  is  credited  with  doing  the  largest  trade  witli  Switzerland,  to  the  amount  of  838.000,000 
annually  ;  but  these  figures  are  misleading,  for  they  represent  to  a  large  degree  goods  that  are  in 
transit  to  or  fioiii  I'llur  cdnmiii  s.  'I'hc  samr  is  trur  of  ilir  ..tlur  lionl,  liii,'  nations.  The  annual 
trade  with  tlic  I'liiinl  stjirs  is  ,x|s.,",(iii.(i(i(i  in  valnr.  alh-m  r^inally  .lividnl  hrtween  exports  and 
imports.  Tlir  rlncl  .'xi..irls  aiv  (aiilii'Mi.l.iirs,  sill;  -ih.,!,,  wai.'lirs,  chi'.sr,  ml  inn  goods,  and  Other 
manufactured  uilieles,  while  Ihe  ininciual  iniiPiiUs  are  lau  male  rials  ami  loml  products. 


COMMERCIAL    (.EOCliArilY  1:^9 

is  followed  in  some  sections,  and  wool  is  exported.     Iron,  Icud,  silver,  eopper.  sul- 
phnr,  salt,  and  coal  are  mined,  but  in  small  quantities. 

Carpets  and  rugs  are  the  chief  mainifa('tures  for  which  the  Turks  are  famous, 
and  even  in  these  goods  the  looms  of  western  nations  are  fast  becoming  active 
competitors  iu  imitating  by  machinery  the  hand  work  of  the  Turkish  weaver,  yet 
uo  loom  can  ever  equal  iu  beauty  and  excellence  the  hand-made  Oriental  rugs  of 
Turkey  and  Persia. 

Constantinople,  the  capital,  the  greatest  commercial  city  of  eastern  Eurojie,  is 
connected  with  the  west  by  railway.  It  carries  on  trade  with  nearly  all  the  nations 
of  the  world,  being  greatly  favored  by  its  excellent  geographical  situation.  There 
is  also  a  large  caravan  trade  with  western  and  central  Asia;  though  the  caravans 
now  bring  mohair,  silk,  and  opium,  rather  than  manufactured  products,  as  was 
formerly  the  case.  The  commerce  of  the  Ottoman  empire  is  largely  in  the  hands  of 
Greeks,  Hebrews,  and  other  foreigners. 

Our  own  trade  with  Turkey  is  very  small;  we  import  wool,  mohair,  and  oils, 
returning  a  small  value  in  kerosene.' 


Turkey  in  Asia,  known  as  Asia.  Minor,  or  '•  The  Levant,"  is  a  high  plateau,  in 
the  south  of  which  are  river  valleys  yielding  tropical  products.  The  interior  is  a 
hilly,  grazing  country  from  which  Angora  and  other  kinds  of  wool  are  exported. 

Smyrna,  the  chief  commercial  city,  possesses  a  fine  harbor,  in  which  vessels  of 
nearly  all  commercial  nations  trade.  Direct  steamship  communication  is  held  with 
various  ports  of  Europe.  The  caravan  routes  that  terminate  at  Smyrna  have  been 
used  for  centuries,  and  over  them  a  great  trade  is  carried  on  with  inland  Asia. 

The  city  is  purely  commercial ;  and  most  of  the  products  of  the  Levant,  includ- 
ing fruits,  opium,  cotton,  sponges,  oil,  and  drugs,  pass  through  its  warehouses.  The 
only  manufactured  products  of  Asia  Minor  are  rugs  and  carpets.  Though  called 
'•Smyrna"  rugs  and  "Smyrna"  carpets,  these  goods  are  made  in  the  interior,  and 
are  merely  sent  to  market  by  way  of  that  city.  Imitations  of  these  rugs  and  carpets 
are  made  by  machinery  in  the  carpet  factories  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 

Damascus  is  still  the  starting-point  for  many  caravans  north,  east,  and  south; 
but  most  of  the  foreign  trade  jmsses  through  the  neighboring  city  of  Beyrout.  The 
two  cities  are  connected  by  a  fine  railway."  Beyrout  is  noted  for  its  textile  manu- 
factures, which,  with  a  considerable  commerce,  place  it  next  to  Smyrna  in  trade 
importance.  Angora,  in  the  interior,  is  the  shii)ping-point  of  the  wool  of  the 
Angora  goat,  commonly  known  as  mohair.     The  trade  is  very  valuable.      Most  of 

'  III  1898  European  Turkey  exported  to  tlie  I'nited  State.s  :    Opium,  wool,  raw  and  niatu- 
factureii,  oils,  togetlier  witli  hides,  fniiu.  tobacco,  silk,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  $2,300,000. 
The  imports  into  Turkey  from  the  United  States  were  8354,000  iu  value  the  same  year. 
-  -Most  of  the  railways  iu  Turkey  are  operated  by  German  capital. 


140  COMMERCIAL    CEOGRAPHY 

the  emery  used  in  the  arts  comes  from  Asia  Minor,  and  is  known  as  Turkisli  emery. 
The  United  States  imports  from  Asia  Minor,  wool,  opium,  licorice,  fruits,  and  skins.' 


IV.  THE  KINGDOM  OF  GREECE.  —  G  reece  occupies  the  southern  part  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  The  surface  is  rugged  and  mountainous ;  the  coast  irregular, 
elevated,  and  deeply  indented.  The  adjoining  islands  are  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
The  area,  1!),000  square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  the  state  of  Vermont;  the 
population,  2,400,000,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts. 

Half  of  the  population  pursues  agriculture,  and  the  fruit-crop  is  important. 
Currants  (raisins  of  Corinth)  are  raised  in  immense  quantities,  the  crop  of  1898 
being  160,000,000  pounds;  while  750,000  bushels  of  olives  are  annually  produced. 
Except  in  fruit  products  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state.  Some  raw  silk  is  pro- 
duced ;  but  this  industry,  in  which  Greece  once  took  the  lead,  has  fallen  into  decay. 

Deposits  of  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  exist ;  and  their  ores  are  second  in  value  among 
the  exports  of  Greece.  The  celebrated  statuary  marble  from  the  island  of  Paros  is  a 
minor  item  of  export. 

Manufactures  are  unimportant.  The  Greeks  have  been  active  traders  from 
early  times,  and  to-day  they  carry  on  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  eastern  INIediter- 
ranean  region.  The  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  is  four  miles  in  length, 
shortening  the  voyage  from  Athens  to  western  Europe.  It  was  used  in  1898  by  over 
2,500  vessels. 

The  bulk  of  the  trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia.  Our  own 
commerce  with  Greece  amounts  to  nearly  $8,000,000  annually,  about  equally  divided 
between  imports  and  exports.  Generally  speaking,  we  exchange  breadstuffs,  kero- 
sene, and  machinery  for  currants,  figs,  and  olives. 

Athens  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.     The  Piraeus,  its  seaport,  has  a  fine  harbor. 


V.  NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN.— The  kingdom  which  is  composed  of  these 
two  countries  occupies  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  The  Norwegians  and  Swedes 
resemble  each  other  in  race  characteristics,  in  institutions,  and  in  industries.  The 
peninsula  is  a  mountainous  table-land,  except  in  the  east  and  south,  where  there 
are  lowlands  of  some  fertility. 

Sweden  has  an  area  of  174,000  .square  miles,  five  times  that  of  the  state  of 
Maine;  and  a  population,  5,000,000,  seven  times  as  great.  Half  the  area  is  forest 
covered,  and  a  large  share  of  the  timber  of  European  commerce  comes  from  this 
peninsula.     Grazing  and  cattle-raising  are  extensively  followed,  and  dairy  products 

"  In  1808  the  exports  from  Asia  Minor  to  the  United  States  were  :  Licorice-root,  wool  and 
manufactures  of  wool,  opium,  figs,  together  with  raisins,  iron  ore,  emery,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of 
about  $.3,284,000. 

The  imports  into  Asia  Minor  from  the  TTnitcd  States  in  1894  were :  Distilled  spirits,  cotton 
cloth,  ami  otlicr  iirticlcs.  to  the  value  of  $107,000. 


tOMMi:nC/AL   GEOGRAPHY  141 

are  tlie  exports  next  iu  value.  Tlirre  are  extensive  iroii-iniiics,  and  the  product  is 
of  tine  quality.  Manufactured  goods  have  little  variety,  the  best  known  being 
Swedish  matches,  which  are  sold  the  world  over.  A  canal  across  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula  connects  the  Baltic  with  the  North  Sea,  and  is  of  great  commercial 
value  to  the  kingdom.  Sweden  ini[)orts  textiles  and  cereals,  and  exports  timber  and 
metals. 

The  only  important  industrial  towns  are  Stockholm,  the  capital,  and  Norrkoping. 
Gotheburg  is  the  principal  seaport. 


Xorway  has  an  area  of  122,000  square  miles,  about  four  times  that  of  the  state 
of  Maine;  and  a  population  of  2,000,000.  There  are  very  extensive  forests;  and 
lumber,  chiefly  fir  and  pine,  is  the  leading  export.  The  fisheries  of  herring,  cod, 
and  whale  provide  the  next  export  iu  value.  Copper  is  mined.  Ship-building 
is  the  only  industry  of  importance,  and  in  proportion  to  population  the  Norwegians 
have  a  larger  shipping-tonnage  than  any  other  nation.  Norway  imports  cereals, 
and  exports  fish  and  hunber.' 

Christiania,  the  capital,  is  the  principal  seaport. 


VI.  DENMARK. — Denmark  occupies  tlie  peninsula  of  Jutland,  north  of  the 
German  Empire,  together  with  the  adjacent  islands.  The  area  is  but  little  greater 
than  that  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut  together.  The  popula- 
tion is  2,185,000,  —  nearly  a  million  less  than  that  of  the  three  states  mentioned. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  low,  being  less  than  600  feet  high  at  the  highest  point, 
yet  it  is  nowhere  below  the  sea-level. 

About  half  the  people  live  bj'  agriculture,  a  quarter  are  employed  in  factories, 
and  the  rest  in  trade  and  the  fisheries.  A  considerable  part  of  the  country  is  covered 
with  forests.  Beech  is  almost  the  only  species  of  timber,  and  articles  made  of  the 
wood  of  this  tree  form  a  considerable  export.  No  minerals  are  found  ;  and  except  a 
small  amount  of  fine  china-ware,  no  manufactured  articles  of  importance  are 
exported. 

Grazing  is  an  important  industry,  and  the  products  of  the  dairy  exceed  the 
products  of   the  soil   in   commercial   consequence.      Three-quarters  of   the   imports 


1  In  1898  the  Scandinavian  kingdom  exported  to  the  United  States :  Iron  and  steel  goods  to 
the  value  of  $1,388,000;  wood  pulp,  fish,  oils,  together  with  books  and  works  of  art,  hides  and 
skins,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $2,005,000. 

The  imports  from  the  L'nited  States  during  the  same  year  were :  Cotton,  beef  and  pork 
product-s,  breadstuffs,  refined  oils,  leather,  together  with  tobacco,  fertilizers,  butter,  and  other 
products,  to  the  total  value  of  §12,'J18,000. 


142  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRM'IIY 

come  from  Germany,  England,  and  Sweden  ;  and  nearly  all  of  the  exports  go  to  these 
countries,  live-stock  and  dairy  products  forming  the  greater  part.' 

Copenhagen,  the  capital,  has  an  excellent  harbor.      It  is  the  chief  commercial  city 
and  largest  industrial  centre  of  the  kingdom. 

The  colonial  dependencies  of  Denmark  are  Greenland  and  Iceland,  and  the 
islands  of  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St  John,  in  the  West  Indies.  None  of  them 
is  of  much  commercial  consequence.  Greenland  exports  cryolite,  —  a  mineral  used  in 
making  soap-soda,  —  alum  and  cryolite  glass,  skins  and  whale-oil;  Iceland  exports 
eider-down,  Iceland  moss,  stock-fish,  and  sulphur ;  the  Danish  West  Indies  export 
sugar  and  molasses. 


VII.  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  —  This  empire  is  situated  in  the  east-central  part 
of  Europe.  The  area,  200,0(10  square  miles,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  state  of 
Texas ;  and  the  population,  41,000,000,  somewhat  exceeds  that  of  France.  The  emperor 
of  Austria  is  also  king  of  Hungary.  More  than  half  the  area  is  mountainous.  In 
the  northeastern  part  are  the  plains  of  Hungary,  forming  about  a  third  of  the  area  : 
here  cereals  are  grown  in  abundance.  An  equal  area  is  forest-covered ;  and  oak, 
pine,  and  beech  lumber  form  a  considerable  export.  The  other  more  important 
exports  are  cereals  and  beet-sugar.  Vine-culture  and  fruit-raising,  especially  of 
prunes,  are  extensively  carried  on  in  the  high  country.  Generally  speaking,  the 
eastern  part  of  the  empire  is  devoted  to  agriculture,  while  in  the  western  part  manu- 
facturing interests  predominate.  Rich  deposits  of  iron  and  coal  in  the  northwest 
have  greatly  stimulated  industry.  Both  minerals  are  exported;  and  the  chief  indus- 
tries are  button-manufaeture,  iron-manufacture,  linen,  cotton,  wool,  and  jute  spinning, 
glass  and  paper  making,  and  sugar-refining.  With  respect  to  mineral  resources,  the 
country  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Europe,  yielding  iron,  salt,  lead,  and  lignite.  The 
Danube  Kiver,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  nearly  all  the  country ;  and,  as  the  more 
important  of  these  tributaries  are  navigable  for  small  vessels,  they  form  valuable 
highways  of  commerce.  In  connection  with  them  is  an  efficient  railway  system,  in 
part  owned  or  operated  by  the  government.  The  railways  provide  close  intercourse 
with  neighboring  nations,  especially  with  Germany. 

Austria  has  a  small  coast  on  the  Adriatic  Sea ;  but  there  are  only  two  ports  of 
any  importance,  —  Trieste  and  Fiume.  These  ports  have  considerable  commerce; 
that  of  the  latter  is  increasing,  since  it  affords  an  outlet  for  the  cereals  and  timber 
of  Hungary.  More  than  half  the  trade  of  the  empire  is  by  railway  with  Ger- 
many. 

1  In  180n  Denmark  exported  to  the  United  States:  Paper-stock,  oils,  worlvs  of  art,  togetljer 
witli  vegetables,  wool,  books,  maps,  and  engravings,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  $280,108. 

The  imports  into  Denmark  from  the  United  States  the  same  year  were  :  Corn,  35,633,000 ; 
beef  and  pork  products,  wheat  and  wheat  flour,  refined  oils,  oil  cake  and  meal,  butter,  fertilizers, 
together  with  ."ieeils,  iron  and  steel  products,  leather,  cotton,  molasses,  tobacco,  and  other  products, 
to  the  total  value  of  $l(i,005,000. 


fuMMlcmiA/.    i.lUKiliM'lIY  148 

Vienna,  tlie  caiiilal  nf  tlio  enipirp,  witli  a  population  of  nearly  ono  ami  one-half 
luillious,  i.s  the  most  ini])oi'tant  eity  of  Austria.  It  is  situated  on  the  Danube,  at  tlu; 
head  of  navigation,  and  thus  controls  a  large  water-trafiie.  It  is  a  great  railway  and 
industrial  centre;  the -chief  manufactures  are  of  machinery,  metal,  and  fancy  goods. 

Prague  is  the  c(iuinu'rcial  centre  of  Bohemian  iudustvii's.  'I'licsc  arc  wciollcn 
and  hardware  niaimrai'turcs,  and  glass-making,  for  which  latter  inchistry  the 
Jlohemians  have   long  been   famous. 

The  twin  city  of  Buda-Pesth  — I'-uda  liein-  .m  the  west  lunk,  and  I'esth  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Danube  — is  the  capital  of  Hungary.  It  is  tiie  centr.^  of 
Hungarian  commerce,  and  has  many  tluur-niills.  .Most  of  the  grain,  cattle,  and 
wine  trade  of  the  kingdom  centres  here. 

The  United  States  imports  from  Austria-Hungary  buttons,  fruits,  drugs,  and 
glassware.     The  exports  of  the  United  States  to  this  country  are  of  little  value.' 


VIII.  PORTUGAL.  — I'ortugal  lies  west  ..f  Spain,  and  borders  ..n  tlie  .\tlautic 
Ocean.  Its  surface  characteristics  and  its  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  Spain. 
The  area,  34,000  square  miles,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  state  of  Maine;  and 
the  population,  5,000,000,  approximates  that  of  the  Netherlands  or  of  (Canada. 
The  people  are  dependent  chiefly  upon  agriculture,  and  wine  is  the  most  valuable 
product.  Fruits  are  next  in  value  ;  and  this  product  includes  oranges,  lemons,  citron, 
figs,  and  olives.  Fishing  is  an  important  industry,  and  sardines  and  herring  are  a 
considerable  export.  Minerals  are  found  in  variety,  and  some  copper  is  exported. 
Manufactures  are  not  very  important;  they  consist  in  the  main  of  fabrics  of  cotton, 
silk,  and  wool,  besides  pottery,  and  leather  goods,  chiefly  gloves.  Speaking  gener- 
ally, Portugal  buys  food  products  and  raw  textiles,  and  sells  cork,  silk,  and  wine.''' 

Lisbon,  the  capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  is  the  chief  commercial  city. 
Oporto,  the  only  other  seaport  of  note,  is  famous  for  its  "port"  wine.  The  last- 
named  city  has  some  manufactures  of  textiles.  The  Portuguese  colonial  dependencies 
in  Asia  and  Africa  are  of  great  prospective  importance.  Near  Africa  are  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  on  which  is  St.  Vincent,  a  fine  coaling-station ;  the  Madeira  Islands, 
celebrated  for  their  wine,  are  a  resort  for  tourists;  the  Azores,  which  export  oranges 

1  In  1899  the  exports  from  Austrian-Hungary  to  the  United  States  were:  Sugar,  $1,459,000; 
glassware,  stone  and  china  ware,  flax,  lieinp,  and  jute,  wood  and  its  manufactures,  vegetables, 
together  with  drugs  and  clipmirnls,  fruits,  jewelry  and  jewels,  leather  goods,  silk  good.s,  and  other 
products,  to  the  total  vaUu'  nf  .sr,.. ",.-,!. i. 

The  imports  into  tln'  mi]. lie  tliai  year  from  the  United  States  were  :  Cotton  to  the  value  of 
Sl,o7(i,000;  oils,  rosin,  turi»iitiiic,  and  ..ther  products,  to  the  total  value  of  157,378,000. 

-  In  1890  Portugal  exported  to  the  United  States  :  Cork,  rubber,  wines,  drugs  and  chemicals, 
together  with  fi-sh,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  §2,975,000. 

During  the  same  year  the  imports  from  the  United  States  were  :  Breadstuffs,  lumber,  cotton 
and  its  products,  oils,  together  with  tobacco,  rosin,  iron  and  steel  products,  jute  goods,  clocks,  and 
other  articles,  to  the  total  value  of  $4,132,000. 

The  bark  of  the  cork-bearing  oaks  is  one  of  tlie  largest  sources  of  wealth  to  Portugal.  In  the 
last  decade  her  manufactures  of  wool,  cotton,  linen,  and  silk  have  rapidly  increased. 


144 


COM  MERC  I A  L    GEOdRA  PII Y 


and  pine-apples ;  Angola,  an  immense  undeveloped  tenitdry  soutli  of  the  Congo  State ; 
and  Mozambique,  with  the  important  port  of  Lourenco  Marquez,  on  the  east  coast. 

In  Asia  are  three  small  colonies  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Indian  peninsula;  a 
portion  of  Timor,  and  the  port  of  Macao  on  the  south  side  of  the  estuary  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Canton  River,  not  far  from  the  citv  of  Honsr  Konjj. 


QUESTIONS 


What  are  the  comparative  area  and  population 
of  Russia  ?  Wliat  is  the  nature  of  the  surface  ? 
What  natural  advantage  has  retarded  the  con- 
struction of  railways  ?  What  disadvantages  to 
agriculture  in  the  north  ?  —  in  the  southeast  ?^ 
in  the  interior  ?  What  section  is  specially  fer- 
tile ?  In  what  agricultural  product  does  Russia 
lead  the  nations  of  Europe  ?  What  are  the  more 
important  manufactures  ?  What  mineral  pro- 
ducts can  you  name  ?  Where  are  the  petroleum 
fields  of  Russia  ?  Give  some  account  of  the 
situation,  industries,  and  commerce  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, —  of  Archangel,  —  of  Odessa,  —  of  Moscow. 
—  of  Warsaw,  —  of  tlie  situation  and  trade  of 
Riga,  — of  the  manufactures  of  Lodz,  —  of  Kief. 
What  important  town  on  the  Caspian  Sea? 
Where  is  the  world's  greatest  fair  annually  held  ? 
What  principal  products  are  here  interchanged  ? 
With  what  countries  is  the  bulk  of  Russian  eoui- 
nierce  carried  on  ?  What  are  the  main  exports 
and  imports  ?  What  do  we  buy  from  Russia  ? 
What  great  engineering-work  now  connects  St. 
IVtersburg  with  the  Sea  of  .Japan  ?  What  is  the 
principal  export  of  Siberia  '?  What  seaports  are 
the  eastrni   i.iinini   of  tlic  Sibovian   Railway? 

Wbirb    will    lakr    Ihr    Willi. ■!■    lia.lrV 

Drsrril,,.  ibr  siliiaiioii  of  S»iiz.a]and.  What 
are  its  comparative  area  and  population  ?  —  the 
chief  agricultural  products  ?  What  natural  ad- 
vantage partially  compensates  for  the  lack  of 
coal  deposits  ?  What  are  the  more  important 
manufactured  products  ?  What  is  the  natine  of 
most  of  the  imports  ? —  of  most  of  the  exports  ? 
What  do  we  mainly  buy  of  the  Swiss  ?  In  whose 
favor  is  the  balance  of  trade?  [Ans.  —  It  is 
largely  in  favor  of  Switzerland.]  How  liave 
Swiss  manufactures  of  silk  been  greatly  bene- 
fited ?  What  city  is  the  centre  of  the  watch- 
making industry  ?  —  of  the  textile  industries  ? 

Describe  the  situation  and  surface  of  Turkey. 
What  is  the  principal  export  ?  What  minerals 
are  found  ?  For  what  especial  manufacture  are 
the  Turks  noted  ?  What  are  the  situation  and 
trade  of  Constantinople  ?  What  can  you  say 
of   our  own  trade  with  Turkey  '.'     Wliat  is  the 


principal  city  of  Asia  Minor?  What  special 
advantages  for  commerce  has  Smyrna?  What 
products  are  exported  here  ?  For  what  is  Da- 
mascus commercially  important  ? —  Beyrout  ?  — 
Angora  ? 

What  are  the  comparative  area  and  popula- 
tion of  Greece  ?  What  are  the  most  important 
products  of  this  coiuitry  ?  What  mineral  forms 
a  considerable  export  ?  With  what  country  is 
the  bulk  of  Greek  trade  carried  on  ? 

Wliat  two  nations  occupy  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula  ?  What  are  the  comparative  area  and 
population  of  Sweden  ?  What  product  is  the 
principal  export  ?  What  ore  is  extensively 
mined?  What  is  the  capital?  —  the  principal 
seaport  ?  What  are  the  comparative  area  and 
population  of  Norway  ?  What  product  is  the 
leading  export  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  ship- 
ping tonnage  of  Norway  ?  What  are  the  main 
imports  of  Sweden  ?  —  of  Norway  ? 

What  are  the  comparative  area  and  population 
of  Denmark  ?  How  are  the  Danes  subdivided 
as  to  occupations  ?  With  what  countries  is  most 
of  the  commerce  of  Denmark  carried  on  ?  What 
colonial  dependencies  can  you  name  ?  What  are 
the  exports  of  each  ? 

What  are  the  situation,  area,  and  population 
of  Austria-Hungary?  What  is  said  of  the  sur- 
face ?  What  natural  product  forms  a  large  ex- 
port ?  Name  other  leading  exports.  In  what 
section  of  the  empire  does  agriculture  predomi- 
nate ?  What  mineral  deposits  in  the  northwest- 
ern part  ?  Name  the  chief  industries  of  the 
empire.  What  great  navigable  river  traverses 
the  country  ?  Name  two  Seaports  of  Austria. 
Locate  and  describe  Vienna,  —  Prague,  —  Uuda- 
Pesth.  What  are  the  leading  items  of  our 
imports  from  Austria-Hungary  ? 

What  are  the  situation,  area,  and  population 
of  Portugal  ?  What  is  the  most  valuable  prod- 
uct ?  What  products  are  next  in  value  to  that 
of  wine  ?  Summarize  the  foreign  trade  of  Por- 
tugal. Where  is  Lisbon  ?  What  can  you  say  of 
Oporto  ?  What  African  colonies  of  Portugal 
can  you  name  ? —  what  Asiatic  colonies  ? 


C(iMMKl!(  7.1  /,    GlCiXn;.  I  /•//  )• 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

SPAIN 


Spain  is  the  chief  instauce  in  iiiodpvii  hi.stoiy  of  a  commercially  decadent  nation. 
From  a  supreme  place  of  wealth  and  commercial  importance,  she  has  fallen  to  a  com- 
paratively insignificant  place  among  the  nations.  Our  imports  from  Spain  consist 
largely  of  raisins,  fruits,  nuts,  wine,  and  iron  ore.  We  send  to  Spain  cotton,  petro- 
leum, tobacco,  and  wheat.  Three-fifths  of  the  commerce  of  Spain  is  with  France  and 
Great  Britain.^ 

The  Spanish-American  war  of  1898  has  changed  the  commercial  relations  of 
Spain,  lessening  her  trade  with  the  United  States  and  with  her  former  colonies. " 
Her  neglected  home  resources,  aided  by  her  fine  maritime  position,  must  be  the  hope 
for  her  future  commercial  prosperity.  Her  largest  export,  of  ores  and  metals,  is 
almost  entirely  the  property  of  foreigners.  Nearly  fifteen  per  cent,  of  her  soil  is 
fertile  but  uncultivated;  and  much  of  the  existing  cultivation  is  wasteful  and  in- 
efficient. By  improvement  of  agricultural  methods,  the  fuller  development  of  her 
mines,  and  the  increase  of  manufactures,  Spain  has  great  possibilities  lor  future  com- 
mercial prosperity. 

Spain  is  situated  on  the  Iberian  peninsula  at  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
Europe.  Five-sixths  of  this  peninsula  are  Spanish  territory,  the  remainder  being 
occupied  by  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.  The  area  of  Spain,  193,000  square  miles,  is 
about  twice  that  of  Oregon;  and  its  population,  17,000,000,  is  about  half  that  of 
France.  The  surface  is  an  elevated,  mountainous  plateau,  so  rugged  in  the  interior 
as  to  be  unfavorable  to  internal  communication.  As  a  consequence,  the  densest 
population  is  found  along  the  coast.  Some  parts  of  the  interior  are  arid,  and  better 
fitted  for  grazing  than  for  tilling;  but  the  soil,  as  a  whole,  is  fertile.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  the  south,  where  irrigation  is  resorted  to.  The  river  valleys  are  numer- 
ous and  fertile,  but  only  one  river  is  navigable.     The  country  is  too  mountainous 

1  In  1S!>8  Spain  fxportfil  to  tlir-  T'nitffl  Slatf<  fniil-  mi. I  mil,  i.,  il,,    >  i!,,.    .  ,f  iir'T.imil  ;  wines, 

§474,000;  ,lru:,s,  rlirnii, Ml-,  ,!>,■.,  sjiU.iiiMi;  rni-K.  -II,  ..:      .     --- -       ..  '    ,Mililead, 

salt,  tciliiicrn,  ami  wih,  r  |,r.iiluri>,  I,,  tlir  loial  \al  -•         --.-j  j.  ;-■,-   ;.     -lit  great 

di.stiu-biinrr  tu  thu  cmiiinLTcial  ivhuiuiis  bctwuiMi  S|i.uii.iii  i  \'..-    I   :  ,      i  ~:  .:        ,.:.  I  •'...,  havr  not  yet 
been  entirely  readjusted.     During  the  year  lSit4   tlie  iinii-ii-  im..  ^|.llIl   inan  ih.-  United  Slates 

were:   Cotton,  §8,085,000;   tobacco,    §1,034,000;   breadstuli -.  -I.I  In, i,    tn-nlirr  with  lumber, 

iron  and  steel  goods,  lard,  and  other  product-s,  to  the  t<ital  valu.'  ..f  si:;,  i  ii,ii()0.     In  1809  they 
amounted  to  but  §0,000.000. 

2  In  1898  came  to  an  end  the  Spanish  Empire  which  once  extended  around  tin-  earth.  Three 
centuries  ago  Mexico,  Central  America,  all  of  South  America  except  Brazil,  thi^  Wivsl  Indies,  and 
the  Philippines,  belonged  to  her  ;  but  by  rniii|iir.si,  insurrection,  and  back  of  all,  by  a  narrow  and 
selfish  governmental  and  commercial  poliry  ili.  |m  ..plr  nt  her  possessions  were  alienated,  and  she  is 
now  left  with  three  small  groups  of  islands  in  ih-  .Vilaiuir  and  the  Mediterranean  and  a  few  African 
stations  as  remnants  of  her  conquests  and  ImnRr  yrLatiR-.ss. 


146  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

for  a  complete  canal  system,  and  the  traffic  that  exists  is  dependent  upon  wagon- 
roads  and  railways. 

Agricultural  pursuits  are  followed  by  three-quarters  of  the  people.  Cereals  are 
raised  in  the  north,  and  fruits  in  the  south.  The  hillsides  are  generally  covered 
with  vineyards,  and  wine-making  is  the  principal  industry  of  the  country.  Wine 
forms  two-fifths  of  the  total  exports.  The  only  other  agricultural  products  exported 
are  fruits,  chiefly  oranges,  raisins,  grapes,  olives,  lemons,  pomegranates,  dates,  anjl 
almonds.  Hemp  and  flax  of  fine  quality  are  raised  in  considerable  quantity.  Graz- 
ing is  an  important  industry.  Cattle,  swine,  and  goats  are  reared ;  but  the  raising  of 
mules,  asses,  and  sheep  yields  much  greater  profit.  Wool  is  considerably  exported, 
and  silk-culture  is  a  thriving  industry.  The  cork-oak  is  cultivated  in  the  northeast, 
near  the  Mediterranean  coast. 

Spain  possesses  very  rich  deposits  of  various  minerals,  chiefly  of  iron,  copper, 
lead,  and  quicksilver;  but  the  copper  and  lead  deposits  are  not  well  developed. 
Iron  is  the  most  important  product  of  the  mines.  It  is  found  in  several  sectioro, 
but  the  principal  deposits  are  in  the  Basque  provinces  in  the  north.  More  iron  ore 
is  shipped  from  Bilbao  than  from  any  other  port  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
The  quality  of  this  ore  is  excellent.  Lead,  copper,  and  quicksilver  occur  chiefly  in 
the  south.  With  the  exception  of  those  at  New  Almaden,  in  California,  the  town 
of  Almaden  has  the  most  important  quicksilver  mines  in  the  world.^ 

Industrially  Spain  is  one  of  the  most  backward  nations  of  Europe.  Cotton, 
wool,  and  linen  are  manufactured,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  for  export.  Iron 
manufactures  are  active  in  the  Basque  provinces ;  at  Toledo  ^  are  manufactures  of 
steel  goods ;  and  silk-spinning  has  its  principal  seats  at  Valencia,  Barcelona,  and 
Murcia. 

With  a  seacoast  of  nearly  two  thousand  miles,  Spain  is  advantageously  situated 
for  international  commerce ;  yet,  in  comparison  with  that  of  other  maritime  nations 
of  Europe,  the  Spanish  merchant  marine  is  small.  The  best  harbors  are  those  of 
Barcelona,  Malaga,  Seville,  Bilbao,  and  Cadiz. 

Barcelona,  on  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  extreme  east  of  the  kingdom,  is  the 
most  important  seaport  and  commercial  and  industrial  centre.  It  is  in  the  regiciu  of 
silk-manufacture,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with  Valencia  and  with  tlie  various 
cities  of  France. 

Valencia,  on  the  coast,  southwest  of  Barcelona,  exports  fruit  in  large  quantities. 
This  city  is  celebrated  for  its  oranges. 

Malaga,  near  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  ranks  next  to  Barcelona  as  a  commercial 
port.     Its  exports  are  chiefly  ores,  wine,  raisins,  and  vegetable  fibres.     It  has  sugar 

1  Tliis  mct.-il  has  many  mpclianical  uses.  It  is  especially  valuable  as  an  araalg.am  ;  and,  tliougU 
we  produce  it  in  abundance,  the  quantity  of  it  used  in  the  mining  of  silver  and  gold  in  tlie  Pacific 
states  accounts  for  our  small  export. 

-  This  place  was  famous  from  early  times  for  its  manufacture  of  sword-blades,  having  but  one 
rival  in  tliis  respect  —  the  Eastern  city  of  Dam.^scus.  The  manufacture  of  these  celebrated  blades 
was  brought  from  Dam<iscus  to  Toledo  by  the  Moors. 


COMMiUiciM.   (,i:i>(;j;a PlfV 


147 


refiiiPi-it's    and    oottoii    factoric 

grapes  extensively  eultivateil 

•Madrid,  the  caiiital,  is  a  r;i 


;  aii])lie(l  to  a  variety  of 
a  Ideal  trade. 


QUESTIOXS 


Nai 
of   Spaii 
Spain  ■■ 

What 

lation  ? 
Spain  ? 


■  our  principal  imports  from  the  kingdom 

n.      What  are   our  leading  exports  to 

Willi  uliMt  roimtriesis  the  bulk  of  the 

■IT  ni  S|.;uil  roiiillicted  ? 

i>  ilir  ^."^i;iiiliiral  situation  of  Spain? 
iiipanaivu  area'.'— its  comparative  popu- 
What  is  tlie  nature  of  the  surface  of 
How  is  the  population  distributed ':' 
What  can  you  say  of  the  facilities  for  internal 
trade  ?  What  is  the  only  navigable  river  ? 
(Ans.    Tlie  Guadalquivir.) 

What  proportion  of  the  population  is  engaged 
in  agriculture  ?  In  what  section  are  fruits  chiefly 
grown  ?  AVhat  section  produces  cereals  ?  What 
is  the  leading  industry  of  Spain  ?  What  share 
of  the  exports  consists  of  wine  ?  What  other 
agricultural  products  can  you  name  ?  Wliere  is 
the  cork-tree  especially  cultivated  ? 


Name  the  principal  minerals  found  in  Spain. 
Which  of  these  is  the  most  valuable  ?  Wlicre 
are  the  ricliest  deposits  of  iron  ore  ?  From 
what  city  is  the  cliief  iron  export  ?  Where 
are  the  lead-mines  of  Spain  ?  —  tlie  quicksilver- 

Wliat  is  the  industrial  condition  of  Spain  ? 
Where  are  its  iron  manufactures  ?  Wliat  cities 
are  seats  of  the  silk-spinning  iniiustry  ?  What 
can  you  say  of  the  natural  advantages  of  Spain 
for  international  commerce?  —  of  the  present 
condition  of  the  merchant  marine  ?  Name  some 
of  the  principal  seaports. 

Where  is  Barcelona?  What  are  its  commer- 
cial advantages?  Locate  Valencia.  What  are 
its  exports?  Where  is  Malaga  ?  AVhat  are  its 
exports  ?     What  local  industries  has  it  ? 


148  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER   XV. 

OTHER  NORTH   AMERICAN   COUNTRIES 

I  THE  CENTEAL  AMERICAN  STATES.  —  Central  America,  the  southern 
extremity  of  Xorth  America,  is  a  little  larger  than  California,  and  comprises  the  five 
republics  of  Guatemala,  liouduras,  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  and  the 
British  colony  of  Balize,  or  British  Honduras.'  The  inhabitants  are  mainly  Indians 
and  mixed  races  ;  most  of  the  whites  are  of  Spanish  descent.  The  greater  part  of 
the  interior  is  a  table-land  of  moderate  height.  The  Pacific  coast  is  mountainous ; 
the  eastern  coast  low  and  marsliy. 

Guatemala  is  the  northernmost  of  the  republics.  By  far  the  most  valuable 
product  and  export  is  coffee  ;  sugar,  hides,  indigo,  rubber,  and  fruits  follow  in  order. 
San  Jose,  and  Champerico  on  the  Pacific  are  tlie  chief  ports.  Ne.w  Guatemala,  the 
capital,  is  a  city  of  60,000  people.  The  total  population  of  the  republic  is  about 
1,400,000. 

Honduras  is  centrally  situated  with  respect  to  the  other  states.  The  exports 
consist  chiefly  of  fruits,  cattle,  mahogany,  hides,  rubber,  coffee,  and  sugar.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  but  little  developed.  There  is  a  short  strip  of 
coast-line  on  the  Pacific,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  republic  stretches  along  the 
Caribbean  Sea  a  distance  of  400  miles.  Tegucigalpa  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 
The  total  population  of  the  republic  is  less  than  half  a  million. 

Salvador  is  the  only  Ontral  American  state  having  no  Caribbean  coast.  The 
people  are  devoted  to  agriculture  and  mining.  Indigo,  coffee,  sugar,  balsam,  and 
silver  are  exported.  The  total  population  is  about  800,000.  The  old  capital.  Sail 
Salvador,  is  surrounded  by  active  volcanoes,  and  has  been  abandoned  for  another 
site  called  New  San  Salvador.  Though  the  smallest  of  the  five  central  American 
republics,  Salvador  ranks  second  in  point  of  population. 

1  In  1899  these  five  republics  exported  products  to  the  United  States  to  the  total  value  of 
$9,205,000,  in  the  following  proportion  :  Costa  Rica,  $:5,581,000  ;  Guatemala,  82,111,000  ;  Nicaragua, 
§1,514,000;  Salvador,  i^I.n^.^.uiid  ;  llonilnins.  §911,000.  Coffee  was  the  largest  item,  amounting  to 
§4,409,000.  IJanana.s  ainoiniii.l  i,.  .s1,:,s,s,(iihi,  of  which  Costa  liica  and  Honduras  shipped  more 
tlian  twii-llurcls.  IJulilni  aMiniinti  il  im  si  I'.i.iiiiO,  of  wliich  Nicaragua  sent  more  than  three-quarters  ; 
and  .iiln  I  ]ii I     \\.  n    i,:  I.    ,    I,    II ,  .li  iiL  -  .iiiil  dyes,  cocoanuts,  and  lumber. 

II      II,  :     I  II     I        I    1   I  i!        line  year  were:  To  Guatemala,  §1,102,000;  Salvador, 

is;l,cc';i. ,    (I.;    K,  .;.    -  1. J  in. 1111,1  ,    \i,,ii,imia,   §1,514,000;    Honduras,  §911,000  ;    aggregating, 

$4,l»s7,(ioo,  luiiM.siin-  i.iihri|.:ill\  ul  ikIihK  luii,  food  products,  and  manufactured  arlicles. 


roMMKiiciA  L  (iKocn.x  I'll y  149 

Nicaragua  is  tlic  hu-gi'st,  in  aiea  of  tlu-so  n-imblics.  anil  lias  an  extensive  seacoast 
on  botli  east  and  west.  The  eential  part  of  the  country  is  a  great  fertile  plain. 
Many  rivers  flow  to  the  sea  from  this  plain,  but  tlie  San  Juan  is  the  only  one  that  is 
navigable.  Mueli  of  the  public  income  is  derived  from  the  monopoly  of  the  experts 
of  tobacco  and  gunpowder.  Cattle-raising  and  the  collecting  of  rubber  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  people.  There  are  few  exports,  that  of  coffee  being  the  most 
important.  Greytown,  on  the  east  coast,  and  San  Juan,  on  the  west  coast,  are  the 
chief  seaports.  Leon,  the  former  capital,  and  the  largest  city,  is  situated  on  the 
Pacific.  Managua,  the  new  capital,  is  situated  upon  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 
The  total  population  of  Nicaragua  is  about  400,000. 

Costa  Rica  is  the  southernmost  of  these  republics.  Its  most  valuable  iiroduct 
is  coffee.  Exports  of  fruits  and  tobacco  are  increasing  yearly.  San  Jum'  is  the 
capital.     The  total  population  of  Costa  Rica  is  over  260,000. 


II.  THE  ISLAND  OF  HAITI  — This  island,  which  is  inhabited  mainly  by 
negroes,  is  divided  into  two  republics  —  Santo  Domingo  in  the  eastern,  and  Haiti  in 
the  western  part.  The  island  has  about  the  same  area  as  Maine,  and  a  population 
of  nearly  a  million.  The  exports  are  chieHy  troidral  woods,  coffee,  cotton,  sugar, 
and  cocoa.' 

Port  an  Prince,  the  capital  of  Haiti,  has  a  population  of  50,000;  that  of  San 
Domingo,  the  capital  of  Santo  Domingo,  is  about  15,000. 


m.  CUBA,  the  most  important  of  the  West  Indies  and  until  January  1,  ISltl), 
a  colony  of  Spain,  is  about  the  size  of  the  state  of  Missouri,  and  has  a  population  of 
about  a  million,  equally  divided  between  whites  and  blacks.  The  capital,  Havana, 
is  the  greatest  sugar-market  in  the  world,  and  the  third  city  of  the  western  hemisphere 
in  point  of  foreign  commerce.  All  the  energies  of  the  people  seem  turned  to  the 
industry  of  sugar  cultivation.  Most  of  the  product  goes  to  the  United  States.  The 
cane-fieids  and  sugar-mills  of  Cuba  were  nearly  all  ruined  during  the  recent  insurrec- 
tion. With  their'  restoration  the  export  of  sugar  must  grow  enormously.  The 
largest  exports  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States  were  in  1893,  when  they  amounted  to 
f  78,000,000.     Next  in  industrial  importance  are  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  the 

'  In  1899  Santo  Domingo  exported  to  the  United  States :  Suf;:u-  l.  tlic  v;ilu.-  of  .sj,ii:',ii.imiii  ;  mi- 
fee,  logwood,  hides  and  skins,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  valm  .ii  s:;.  li'.".,ii.in  Tlir  ini].  nis 
from  the  United  States  during  the  same  year  were :  Cotton  fjoods.  >l:j'.i,iiiiii  ;  linn.  sl_'r,,ii(ii)  ;  ii,in 
and  steel  goods,  fish,  ba^s,  provi^imis.  lumlu'i-,  ;uid  ntlicr  produois,  lu  thr  i.UhI  valu.  ..f  si  .liilnuii. 

In  1899  Haiti  expoil,,!  l..  ll,.-  riiitrd  Si;itrs  :  Lu^viod  valued  at  §412.000;  l.i^.  -  .umI  -kin-^. 
$12,000;  and  other  pnulurt-c.  to  ilir  intnl  value  ..f  ssjil.diio.  The  imports  from  the  1  1111..I  si;iies 
m  the  same  year  were:  .Meat  pioduets.  tliur,  iLsli,  cotton  cloth,  lumber,  tobacco,  so.p,  .laiiy  and 
ether  products,  to  the  total  value  of  §2,465,000. 


150 


COMMERCIA  L    GEOdllA  I'lIY 


inamifaoture  of  cigars.',  Iron  oro,  especially  adapted  for  use  in  making  Bessemer  steel, 
is  mined  in  increasing  quantities  in  the  mountains  of  eastern  Cnba,  near  Santiago. 
All  these  mines  are  owned  by  American  companies,  and  nearly  the  whole  product, 
amounting  in  1S97  to  452,000  tons,  is  shipped  to  the  furnaces  of  the  United  States. 
The  climate  of  Cuba  is  mild  and  equable,  and  Havana  has  long  been  a  popular  winter 
veaovi.- 


QUESTIONS 


What  can  you  say  of  the  situation,  area,  sur- 
face, and  population  of  Central  America  ?  What 
is  the  situation  of  Guatemala  ?  What  are  its 
chief  products  and  exports  ?  Name  the  Pacific 
ports  of  Guatemala.  What  is  the  capital  ?  AVhat 
is  the  approximate  population  of  the  republic  ? 
Where  is  Honduras  ?  What  are  the  chief  prod- 
ucts ?  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  are  the 
leading  industries  of  Salvador  ?  —  the  exports  ? 
AVhat  is  the  population  ?  What  is  the  capital  ? 
Describe  Nicaragua,  its  situation,  surface,  and 
products.  What  are  the  chief  exports  ?  Name 
the  principal  seaports.     AVhat  is  the  capital  ? 


AA'here  is  Costa  Rica  ?  AVhat  is  the  most  valu- 
able product  of  this  republic  ?  AVhat  exports 
can  you  name  ?  AA'hat  is  the  total  population  of 
the  country  ?  AVhat  two  republics  in  Haiti  ? 
By  what  race  is  the  island  peopled  ?  AVhat  are 
the  leading  exports?  Name  two  considerable 
towns  on  this  island. 

What  are  the  area  and  population  of  Cuba  ? 
For  what  product  is  Havana  the  world's  largest 
market  ?  AVhat  can  you  say  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  this  port  ?  To  what  country  does  most 
of  Cuba's  sugar  product  go  ?  Name  another  im- 
portant product  of  this  island  ? 


1  Havana  tobacco,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  port  of  shipment.  Is  principally  grown  on 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  island,  in  a  small  tract  about  150  square  miles  in  area.  It  is  well 
e.stablislied  that  many  so-called  Havana  cigars  of  commerce  are  not  made  from  Cuban  tobacco.  It 
is  asserted  in  some  quarters  that  tobacco  grown  elsewhere  is  imported  into  Cuba  to  be  made  up  into 
cigars,  which  are  then  exported  as  genuine  Havanas.  Cigar-making  in  Havana  has  suffered  greatly 
from  the  growth  of  the  same  industry  in  \\vy  West,  Florida,  where  it  is  encouraged  by  the  customs 
duty  imposed  by  our  governmenl,  wliirli  is  i;iiater  on  manufactured  than  on  leaf  tobacco. 

2  In  the  year  ending  June  :;ii.  I'.idii.  tlic  ixports  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States  were  §31,000,000 
and  her  imports  from  the  United  (Suilfs  ■'jL'OjUUO.OOO. 


CUMMEUCIAL   GEOallAl'liy  161 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

OTHER  SOUTH  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES 

I.  VENEZUELA.  —  A'enezuela  borders  on  the  Caribbean  Sea;  Guiana  bounds 
it  on  the  east,  Brazil  on  the  south,  and  Colombia  ou  the  west.  The  greater  part  of 
the  republic  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco  Kiver.  The  area,  439,000  square  miles, 
is  about  twice  that  of  Germany,  and  the  population,  2,300,000,  about  equals  that  of 
the  state  of  Missouri.  Political  disturbances  have  retarded  the  development  of  the 
country,  aud  progress  has  also  been  checked  by  government  monopolies  granted 
upon  certain  uative  pi'oducts,  and  on  the  right  of  steam  navigation  upon  Lake  Mara- 
caybo.  Inland,  and  at  present  beyond  the  reach  of  commerce,  are  great  forests, 
extensive  grazing  areas,  and  a  very  fertile  agricultural  country.  Concessions  have 
been  made  for  the  building  of  railways,  and  these  are  giving  great  impetus  to  the 
industries  and  commerce  of  the  interior. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation,  and  cattle-raising  is  extensively  carried 
on  upon  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco.  The  gold-fields,  though  not  yet  very  productive, 
are  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  Coal  exists  in  considerable  quantities ;  and 
iron,  copper,  asphalt,  petroleum,  silver,  tin,  and  salt  abound.  Within  the  last  few 
years,  owing  to  the  increased  development  of  the  vast  natural  resources  of  the 
republic,  the  foreign  commerce  has  quadrupled.  The  exports  of  greatest  conse- 
quence are  coffee  and  copper ;  subordinate  items  are  hides,  dyewoods,  cocoa,  and 
timber.  Most  of  the  trade  of  Venezuela  is  with  our  own  country,  Germany,  and 
France.  We  buy  of  Venezuela  principally  coffee,  and  sell  to  her  in  exchange  food- 
stuffs, cotton  goods,  and  iron  and  steel  manufactures.' 

Caracas,  the  capital,  is  the  principal  cocoa-market.  Valencia  exports  coffee. 
Maracai/bo  is  the  chief  seaport.  When  Columbus  visited  this  region  he  found  the 
native  settlement  on  Lake  Maracaybo  built  upon  piles,  whenee  the  name  Venezuela, 
"  Little  Venice." 


XL  THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.  —  This  republic  occupies  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  continent  of  South  America.  The  area  is  about  one-third  that  of  the 
United  States;  the  population  is  estinuited  at  four  millions.     There  is  a  large  aud 

1  In   1898  Venezuela   rxi«.i1c.l   In   (lie    Inilr.!   Scii.s:    c.-ITcr.   si;, 171. ;    hidrs   iiii.l   skins, 

§1,194,000;  cacao.  S141.ihi(I  ;   tM-.^ilin-  will,  nilil.rr,  LmiIht-.  .  ir..  i<i  ilir  im,,!  ^■^h I'  .s7,7-.-J.i»iii, 

During  the  .same  \r:ir  ihr  iiii|Hiris  irmn  ilir  I  ininl  Mjir,  wtlv:  Miai  .unl  ihiirv  lOMilnrt^, 
flour,  cotton  cloth,  iron  and  sliul  goods,  loLrt-thcr  with  a  varit-ty  ol  oiliei-  iioods,  to  tliu  toial  \ahic  of 
$-_',S;Jl,Ot)0. 


152  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

rapidly  increasing  immigration,  chiefly  from  Italy  and  Spain.  The  republic  is 
a  pastoral  country.     Sheep-ranges  cover  a  vast  area.' 

Among  the  minerals  known  to  exist  are  silver,  copper,  gold,  coal,  salt,  and 
sulpliur;  but  tlie  output  of  these  is  as  yet  quite  small.  The  coal-fields,  though 
undeveloped,  give  promise  not  only  of  furnishing  sufficient  coal  for  home  needs,  but 
of  providing  an  article  of  export  to  the  neighboring  republics. 

There  is  railway  communication  between  Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital,  and  all  the 
important  cities  of  the  country.  The  railway  system  between  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Valparaiso,  nearly  completed,  promises  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  trunk  lines,  not 
only  of  South  America,  but  of  the  world,  as  it  saves  the  long  and  dangerous  voyage 
of  nearly  2,000  miles  around  Cape  Horn. 

After  the  absorption  of  Patagonia  by  Chili  and  the  Argentine  Eepublic,  it  was 
found  that  its  supposed  barren  wastes  are  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys,  fine 
pastures,  dense  woods,  and  every  requisite  for  the  support  of  a  large  population. 

The  chief  articles  of  export  in  the  order  of  their  value  are  wool,  hides,  skins, 
corn,  preserved  meats,  live  animals,  flax,  tallow  and  fat,  and  wheat.  We  buy  of 
the  Argentine  Eepublic  wool,  hides,  and  skins ;  and  in  ejtchange  sell  lumber  and 
manufactures  in  great  variety.-  Thousands  of  tons  of  jerked  beef  are  yearly  shipped 
to  Brazil  and  other  neighboring  countries.  From  1880  to  1887  the  commerce  of  the 
republic  more  than  doubled,  being  in  the  latter  year  of  greater  value  in  proportion 
to  the  population  than  that  of  any  other  country  in  the  world.  The  natural 
advantages  of  the  Argentine  Eepublic  are  very  great,  and  everything  points  to  its 
future  commercial  importance." 

There  are  many  small  seaports,  but  two-thirds  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
country  is  done  through  Buenos  Ayres.     This  is  the  most  energetic  and  progres- 

1  In  1899  the  Argentine  Republic  produced  .370,000,000  pounds  of  wool,  being  about  one- 
third  more  than  is  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  great  items  of  export  in  the  same  year  were 
animals  and  their  products  to  the  value  of  $87,381,000,  while  other  farm  products  amounted  to 
$42,692,000. 

2  In  1899  the  Argentine  Republic  exported  to  the  United  States :  Hides  and  skins,  wool,  and  a 
few  other  artirl.s.  tn  tho  total  vnliir  cf  .S"..l  12.000. 

Tin-  imiiniis  ri',111]  111.,  riiii.d  Sillies  .luring  the  same  year  were  in  great  variety,  of  which 

airri.iiliuiiil   iiiipl.  111. ■Ills  a ml.. I   I..  s.',ii-.'s,(ino  ;   wood  and   its  manufactures,  61, 150,000  ;    iron 

and  stt-ei  <;(joas,  §412,UUU  ;  ciLs,  si,it;i,uUU;  together  with  cotton  cloth,  etc.,  to  the  total  value 
of  8i),oG3.000. 

'  If  any  portion  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  has  a  possibility  of  rivalling  the  United  States  in 
commercial  energy,  resources,  progress! veness,  and  cnligluennient,  it  is  the  Argentine  Republic. 
It  has  many  of  the  natin-al  resoiuces  of  the  United  States,  great  extent  of  plains  w  here  wheat,  corn, 
and  other  grain  can  be  raised  far  in  excess  of  the  home  demand,  almost  unlimited  forest  area  of  the 
choicest  cabinet  and  building  woods,  and  evidences  of  valuable  deposits  of  mineriils.  The  adjoining 
ri'imlili.  ..r  I'..i:.jii:.\ .  whi.h  is  a  f.e.ler  and  tributary  to  the  Ai'gentine  Republic,  has  a  large  area 
lliai  ^^l!!  :.  r.  ..  .1 1 .  .11.  ri.-.\  aii.l  Other  seml-tropical  products  in  abundance. 

I  1.  .1.111. .ii-ir,ii..l  the  great  value  of  the  I'atagonian  accession  In  the  south, both 

for  rai.^iij-  ui.i.ii  .111,1  lur  graiiii;;;  wliije  the  farther  north  the  republic  pushes  its  frontier  — settlers 
following  close  behind  —  the  more  fertile  and  productive  the  soil  is  found  to  be.  'I'lie  l.eii.  i-  pari  of 
this  northern  area  can  be  reached  by  waterways,  and  where  these  do  not  exist  railways  are  L.-iin; 
rapidly  extended.    Tbiee-fourths  of  a  million  of  emigrants  from  Europe  have  settle.l  in  the  lepnblic 


COMMimClAL    GLOaUAI'IIY  15S 

sive  of  the  cities  of  South  Amoriea.  It  is  situated  on  the  River  Plate,  about  one 
hundred  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  the  roadstead  is  an  open  one  for  the  entire 
distance.  Nearly  opposite  is  Montevideo,  in  Uruguay,  a  city  more  advantageously 
situated,  yet  of  much  less  cominerciivl  importance.  By  means  of  a  submarine  cable 
there  is  telephonic  communication  between  the  two  places.  Jlore  than  twenty  steam- 
ship lines  connect  Buenos  .\yres  with  important  ports  in  Euro[)e.  The  population  is 
over  half  a  million.  The  lliver  I'late  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Parana 
and  the  Uruguay  rivers,  and  the  Parana  River  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  Plate 
throughout  its  course. 


III.  COLOMBIA.  —  The  republic  of  Colombia  is  situated  at  the  northwestern 
extremity  of  South  America.  It  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  as  far  north  as  the 
boundary  of  Costa  Rica.  Its  area,  500,000  square  miles,  is  nearly  twice  that  of 
Texas ;  the  population  is  estimated  at  4,000,000.  Much  of  the  surface  is  mountain- 
ous ;  in  the  southeast  are  extensive  plains. 

Agriculture  is  the  predominating  industry.  The  principal  products  are  tobacco, 
cocoa,  coffee,  plantains,  bananas,  wheat  and  other  cereals,  vegetable  ivory,  and 
indigo.  Cattle  and  horses  are  reared  on  the  plains,  and  large  quantities  of  hides  and 
jerked  beef  are  produced.  The  forests  are  extensive.  Among  the  trees  are  mahogany 
and  cedar,  fustic  and  other  dyewoods,  and  medicinal  plants.  The  mineral  produc- 
tions are  gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  iron,  lead,  coal,  and  precious  stones. 

The  chief  exports  are  cinchona,  coffee,  nuts,  silver  ore,  cocoa,  cotton,  dyestuffs, 
balsams,  hides,  rubber,  and  straw  hats.  The  chief  imports  are  clothing  and  food- 
stuffs. Of  far  more  importance  than  the  direct  commerce  is  the  transit  trade 
passing  Between  the  two  ports  of  Panama  and  Colon,  by  way  of  the  Panama  railway. 
It  is  here,  and  following  mainly  the  line  of  this  railway,  that  the  futile  and  ruinous 
scheme  of  an  interoceanie  canal,  projected  under  French  auspices,  reached  its 
disastrous  conclusion  in  1888.  The  principal  means  of  communication  between  the 
interior  and  the  sea  is  the  Magdalena  River,  which  is  navigable  by  steamers.  The 
chief  exports  by  this  route  are  Peruvian  bark,  tobacco,  and  coffee. 

Panama  is  the  principal  seaport  and  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the  isthmian 
railway ;  Colon,  or  Aspinwall,  is  its  Atlantic  terminus.     Bogota,  the  capital  and  chief 


during  the  last  ten  years,  and  the  immigration  is  increasing  yearly.  A  few  years  ago  much  of  the 
wheat  used  was  imported.  Now  wheat  is  among  the  exports,  and  enters  into  competition  with  that 
of  the  United  States.  More  than  enougli  sugar  is  raised  to  supply  tlie  Iiome  demand,  and  sugar  is 
now  a  considerable  export.  Tlie  same  is  true  of  various  other  products  of  tlie  soil.  Beef  and  mutton 
are  shipped  in  (juantities  to  Europe. 

In  1801  there  occurred  a  financial  panic  that  dealt  a  severe  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
country,  and  one  that  may  be  felt  for  many  years.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  crisis  was  the  witli- 
drawal  of  Kussian  guarantees  that  had  been  given  to  secure  loans  advanced  by  a  syndicate  of 
capitalists.  The  real  cause,  however,  was  a  state  of  unparalleled  political  corruption  brought  about 
by  spt'culiition  in  tiotitiuus  values. 


1£4  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

city,  is  situated  on  a  lofty  plateau,  and  is  consequently  healthful,  though  but  a  few- 
hundred  miles  distant  from  the  equator.  Barranqiulla,  on  the  Magdaleua  River,  and 
connected  by  a  railway  with  Savanilla,  a  seaport  twenty  miles  distant,  is  commer- 
cially important  —  nearly  all  the  foreign  trade  of  the  republic  passing  through  it. 

Our  own  trade  with  the  republic  of  Colombia  may  be  summarized  as  follows  ■- 
We  buy  coffee  and  hides,  and  sell  manufactures  and  food-stuffs.^ 


IV.  CHILI.  —  Chili  extends  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America  from  Peru  to 
Cape  Horn,  and  is  walled  in  on  the  east  by  the  great  chain  of  the  Andes.  Its  area, 
nearly  300,000  square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  the  state  of  California;  the  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  nearly  three  millions. 

Northern  Chili  has  a  desert-like  surface,  and  would  be  of  little  value  but  for 
the  deposits  of  guano  and  nitre,-  and  for  its  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  in  tlie 
mountainous  regions  back  from  the  seacoast.  The  nitrates  form  the  most  important 
article  of  export  to  the  United  States.  The  middle  part  of  the  republic  is  the  most 
populous,  and  is  tlie  agricultural  section  ;  the  southern  part  is  sparsely  inhabited 
and  covered  with  dense  forests.  Tlie  population  of  this  country,  unlike  that  of 
most  other  South  American  states,  consists  mainly  of  people  of  European  descent. 
Most  of  the  land  of  Chili  belongs  to  large  estates,  and  its  cultivation  is  carried  on 
by  the  rudest  methods.  A  large  proportion  of  the  soil  is  unproductive ;  yet  where  it 
is  capable  of  tillage,  it  yields  abundant  crops.  There  are  extensive  coal-mines,  and 
Chili  supplies  coal  to  most  of  the  other  republics  of  South  America.  The  nortli 
is  rich  in  nitre  and  guano,  the  centre  in  copper  and  silver,  and  the  south  in  iron 
and  coal. 

The  exports  in  the  order  of  their  value  are  nitrates,  copper,  wheat,  and 
gold.  The  leading  imports  of  Chili  consist  of  clothing,  food-stuffs,  and  machinery. 
The  United  States  buys  nitrates  and  hides,  and  in  exchange  sells  manufactured 
goods.' 

Santkujo  is  the  capital,  and  Valparaiso  is  its  port.  The  latter  city  is  built  at 
the  side  of  a  steep  cliff  which  forms  a  crescent  around  the  bay,  the  business  portion 

1  In  1898  the  exports  from  Colombia  to  the  United  States  were  :  Bananas,  8561,000;  coffee. 
$3,082,000  ;  hides  and  skins,  8649,000  ;  together  with  cocoanuts,  vegetable  ivory,  cacao,  rubber,  and 
other  pnidnets,  tn  the  total  vnhie  nf  .<!.-.. lS;!.(ino. 

Diiriiij  ilir  siiiiir  \i:ir  ilir  iiii|i  'li^  fii'in  the  United  State.s  were:  Manufactm-es  of  iron  and 
.stc'il.  sii;i|.iiiiii  :  uIhiii  iliiiu.  slj", .1111(1  injiiher  with  meat  and  dairy  products,  lumber,  sugar, 
books,  iiiiiii.-.  :iih1  niuriMii^s.  a\\'\  mi  i„i- , hi  irirs  to  the  total  value  of  83,277,000. 

-  The  nitre  depnsits  ,  oii-i>i  rhi,  il\  ni  -..iliiiui  nitrate,  only  a  small  quantity  of  potassium  nitrate 
being  found.     The.se  c1i|.mmn  :iii  rniMnirivKilly  spoken  of  as  "nitrates." 

8In  1800ChiIiexi.oii,,l  inih,.  1  Hii,,!  st:ites  :  Nitrate  of  soda  to  the  value  of  $2,29.3,000  ;  wool, 
$118,000;  to,seUier  wiili  liiilrs.  dnus.  ,  i,..  i..  il,,.  ini,,I  value  of  $2,942,000. 

The  impiirt.s  fmm  the  liiii.  il  siii.  ^  in  iIh  >  nih  \  rar  were  :  Iron  and  steel  goods,  cotton  goods, 
kero.scne  and  other  oils,  luiiiln  r.  i  i  ■  iln  i  wiili  .i-i  ii  nliiir.U  implements,  meat  products,  sugiir,  medi- 
cines, and  other  articles,  to  thu  lut.il  wilia-  ut  >::i,liJ7,i)UU. 


(•OMMEIICIAI.    CEixinAPIlY  155 

being  on  the  shore.      Jfpdrjxc.  farther  north,  is  the  [lort  from  whic'h   most  of  the 
products  of  tlie  northern  part  are  exported.     A  railway  connects  the  two  cities. 

The  rivers  are  necessarily  short  and  are  navigable  for  limited  distances  and  by 
small  steamers  only,  t'hili  has  liberal  immigration  laws,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
active  and  energetic  states  of  South  America.  She  recently  joined  with  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  in  the  partition  of  Patagonia,  and,  by  her  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
added  largely  to  her  area  and  wealth.  Chili,  like  other  South  American  republics, 
has  had  her  progress  anil  prosi)erity  seriously  impeded  by  civil  war. 


V.  XTRUGUAY.  — Uruguay,  south  of  Brazil,  and  east  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
is  the  smallest  of  the  South  American  republics.  The  area,  72,000  square  miles,  is 
about  twice  that  of  the  state  of  Indiana ;  the  population,  800,000,  is  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  state  of  Connecticut.  There  are  few  Indians  among  the  inhabitants,  the 
people  being  chiefly  descendants  of  the  original  Spanish  settlers,  together  with 
Italians  and  other  European  immigrants. 

The  republic  is  fortunately  situated  for  commerce,  having  more  than  (iOO  miles 
of  water  front  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  on  the  Uruguay  and  Plate  rivers.  The 
surface  is  a  vast  grassy  plain,  diversified  by  low  swells  of  land  in  the  interior. 
The  country  is  well  watered,  and  the  climate  is  not  unlike  that  of  southern  France. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  are  grown  in  great  abundance  and  variety.  The  chief  wealth 
of  the  country,  however,  centres  in  the  grazing  interests ;  and  the  exports  of  beef, 
hides,  and  wool  are  of  chief  importance.  The  agricultural  resources  are  unsur- 
passed. It  is  said  that  there  is  not  an  acre  of  unproductive  land  in  the  republic. 
The  most  important  field  products  are  wheat  and  maize.  There  are  several  agricul- 
tural colonies  in  the  country,  composed  mainly  of  Italians  and  Spaniards.  The 
forests  yield  a  plentiful  supply  of  useful  timber. 

Trade  is  carried  on  mainly  with  Great  Britain  and  France.  The  chief  wealth  of 
Uruguay  is  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  the  manufacture  of  sun-dried  beef  and  beef 
extracts  with  other  animal  products  is  the  leading  industry.  In  1899  821,600  cattle 
were  slaughtered,  and  the  total  value  of  the  flocks  and  herds  is  estimated  at  over 
$73,000,000.  The  leading  imports  are  of  liquors,  and  manufactured  goods  in  great 
variety.  We  buy  of  Uruguay,  hides,  wool,  and  hair,  and  sell  in  exchange  lumber, 
kerosene,  and  manufactured  products.' 

Montevideo,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  situated  upon  a  tdugue  of  land  which 
is  washed  on  one  side  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  other  by  the  lliver  Plate,  which  is 


1  In  1890  Uruguay  exported  to  the  United  States  :  Hides,  fertilizers,  hair,  together  with  other 
products,  to  tlie  total  value  of  $1,281,000. 

The  imports  into  Uruguay  from  the  United  States  in  the  same  year  were  :  Kerosene  and  otlier 
oils,  lumber,  cotton  giHid.s,  together  witli  farm  tools,  drugs,  cordage,  rosin,  lard,  tobacco,  etc.,  to 
the  total  value  of  $1. •242,000. 


150  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

here  sixty-five  miles  wide.     The  harbor  is  tho  host  smitli  of  Tuo  do  Janeiro;  most  of 
the  trade  of  the  republic  passes  through  this  port. 

By  reason  of  its  natural  advantages  in  climate,  geographical  position,  and  soil,  Uruguay  has  a 
promising  future.  Tlie  River  Plate  drains  an  area  of  more  than  a  million  square  miles,  and,  witli 
its  triliiiMi  i.s.  iilTcrds  more  navigable  waters  than  all  lli.-  liv.  is  ..f  i:iii,.]ir  tMt;,-ther.  The  tide  from 
tin-  Ailaiii;.  .M.  lalsadi.stance  of  250  miles,  ami  th.iv  i^  a  .Liiili  "i  wai.  i  Nulhcient  for  vessels  of 
il,.,.|,  ,|iaii-lii  fa- a  thousand  miles  into  the  iiiK  lan.  I  la  |i.i|inliii'.ii  m|  ih,-  i,  public  has  been  rapidly 
ineiva,>iii,i;,  aial  much  of  the  prosperity  of  the  euuutiy  i.s  due  lu  the  lael  Ihiit  the  native  population 
has  largely  ^iven  place  to  energetic  foreign  immigrants. 


VI.  ECUADOR.  —  Ecuador  lies  on  the  Pacific  coast,  between  Colombia  and 
Peru.  The  area,  120,000  square  miles,  nearly  equals  that  of  New  Mexico ;  the  popu- 
lation is  more  than  a  million,  over  half  of  it  consisting  of  Indians.  Agriculture 
is  in  a  backward  state.  Cacao  is  the  staple  product.  The  minerals  comprise  gold, 
sulphur,  lead,  iron,  copper,  and  emeralds.  Extensive  forests  afford  timber  suitable 
for  ship-building  and  cabinet-work.  In  the  highlands  saddles  and  a  coarse  earthen- 
ware are  made ;  gold  lace  and  filigree  work  are  produced  in  Quito.  The  manufacture 
of  "Panama"  hats  is  a  leading  industry;  cordage,  mats,  sackcloth,  and  hammocks 
are  made  from  the  fibre  of  the  maguey,  a  species  of  agave. 

The  roads  are  very  poor,  even  in  the  dry  season,  and  during  the  several  wet 
months  of  the  year  are  impassable.  Freight  and  merchandise  are  transported  by 
pack-animals.     There  are  two  short  railways  from  the  coast  to  the  interior. 

Trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  with  Great  Britain.  Cacao  is  the  principal  export: 
rubber,  hides,  coffee,  vegetable  ivory,  barks,  precious  metals,  and  Panama  hats,  are 
also  articles  of  traffic' 

Quito,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  nearly  on  the  equator,  at  an  altitude  of 
about  ten  thousand  feet.  Guayaquil  is  the  principal  seaport.  The  so-called  Panama 
hats  are  made  here  —  the  name  coming  from  the  fact  that  Panama  merchants  for- 
merly controlled  their  sale.  Guayaquil  is  the  only  place  of  much  importance,  and 
most  of  the  shipments  of  cacao,  rubber,  hides,  and  bark  pass  through  this  port. 

Ecuador  is  a  country  of  great  resources,  needing  capital  and  jjcople  of  energy 
for  their  development. 

Vn.  PERU.  —  Peru  is  situated  on  the  Pacific  coast,  south  of  Ecuador,  and 
west  of  I'.razil  and  Bolivia.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  400,000  square  miles;  the 
population  is  nearly  3,000,000,  of  which  the  great  majority  are  Indians  and  half- 
breeds.  Along  the  coast  the  country  is  low.  The  lands  lying  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Andes  are  very  fertile,  and  will  be  opened  to  enterprise  and  trade  by  the 
completion  of  railways  and  irrigation  works  now  projected.     The  ocean  cable  on 

1  In  l^'i'i  1"  i;i  I  r  exported  to  the  United  Slates:  Cacao  to  the  value  of  $270,000;  india- 
rubber,  .$:;:;!  !i        with  other  products,  to  the  total  vahie  of  $1,054,000. 

In  I  la  i;   1    uador  imported  from  the  United  States  a  variety  of  articles  amounting  to 


COMMKHcIM.    CKOCItAI'lIY  lo? 

the  poast  lias  stations  at  Payta.  ('allao.  and  Lima.  IVru  is  inlorsocted  by  tlu>  head 
waters  of  the  Amazon,  which  afford  it  connniinication  with  the  Atlantic. 

The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  Peruvian  (cinchona)  bark,  wool,  both 
from  sheep  and  from  the  alpaca  goat,  and  ores.  Our  own  trade  with  Peru  is  very 
.small.' 

It  was  a  dispute  over  the  nitraie  beils  that  led  to  the  war  with  Chili,  which 
resulted  disastrously  to  both  Peru  and  Bolivia.  When  the  independence  of  these 
republics  was  first  obtained,  Bolivia  had  a  barren  strip  of  seacoast.  When,  how- 
ever, the  nitre  beds  were  discovered  and  their  value  demonstrated,  Chili  asserted  her 
ownership  to  theiu  under  an  ancient  claim.  Bolivia  and  Peru  had  treaties,  offensive 
and  defensive;  and  the  latter  unsuccessfully  defended  Bolivia's  claim.  Peru  was 
bankrupted  and  demoralized  by  the  ensuing  war  witK  Chili.  The  importance  of 
the  port  of  Callao  has  lessened ;  and  where  hundreds  of  vessels  formerly  anchored, 
now  hardly  a  dozen  are  found.  A  French  company  holds  a  monopoly  of  the  anchor- 
age, wharves,  and  shipping-rights,  and  has  so  oppressed  commerce  as  to  injure  it. 

TJma  is  the  capital  and  chief  centre  of  trade  and  wealth.  It  is  connected  with 
Cidliio,  its  seaport,  by  railway.  Some  of  the  largest  and  finest  business  houses  in 
Linui  are  owned  by  Chinese  merchants,  who  have  the  monopoly  of  trade  in  certain 
textile  goods.  A  majority  of  the  commerce  is  with  the  United  Kingdom,  while 
second  place  in  trade  belongs  to  Germany. 


VIII.  PARAGUAY.  —  Paraguay  lies  between  Brazil  and  Bolivia  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic.  From  the  latter  it  is  separated  by  the  Paraguay  and  Parana  rivers. 
It  is  one  of  the  smallest  states  of  South  America,  and,  like  Bolivia,  has  no  seacoast. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  140,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  at  nearly  half 
a  million.  The  southern  part  of  the  country  is  low  and  swampy.  A  large  part  of 
the  northern  section  is  covered  with  forests,  comprising  a  great  variety  of  timber. 
The  mineral  resources  are  imperfectly  known,  but  iron  and  copper  have  been  found 
in  several  places. 

Paraguay  has  every  advantage  that  nature  can  afford,  and  needs  only  develop- 
ment to  become  of  greater  commercial  importance.  Its  pastures  support  vast  herds 
of  cattle,  and  fruits  in  great  variety  are  grown.  The  raising  of  yerba  male  (Para- 
guay tea)  is  a  leading  industry.  The  majority  of  trade,  like  most  South  American 
states,  is  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  and  is  credited  to  the  River  Plate. 

The  manioc  root,  from  which  the  tapioca  of  commerce  is  produced,  is  the 
staple  diet  of  the  people.  This  is  to  Paraguay  and  Brazil  what  rice  is  to  China 
and  Japan,  and  potatoes  to  Ireland.  The  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  four  feet  and 
resembles  the  tomato.     The  stalk  and  leaves,  when  dried,  serve  as  fodder  for  cattle. 

1  In  1899  Peru  exported  to  the  United  States:  Hides  and  skins,  cotton,  and  other  articles,  to 
the  total  value  of  $1,. 325,000. 

In  the  same  year  Peru  imported  from  the  United  States:  Farm  tools,  breadstuffs,  chemicals, 
cottons,  and  other  articles,  to  the  total  value  of  .81.490,000. 


158  COMMERCIAL    GEOGUAI'IIY 

The  principal  export  is  the  yi'rba  fiuitt',  or  Paraguay  tea,  made  of  leaves  of  the 
ilex-tree,  dried  and  reduced  to  powder.  This  tea  is  a  mild  stimulant,  and  is  exten- 
sively consumed  in  the  other  countries  of  South  America.  Paraguay  tobacco,  a  poor 
article,  and  hides,  are  other  exports.  About  half  the  total  imports  of  Paraguay  are 
derived  from  Great  Britain,  and  consist  mainly  of  machinery  and  clothing. 

Asuncion,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  Paraguay  River.  Villa  Rica  and  Con- 
cepcion  are  other  towns  of  importance. 


IX.  BOLIVIA.  ^  ISolivia  is  bordered  north  and  east  by  Brazil,  south  by  the 
Argentine  liepublic  and  Paraguay,  and  west  by  Peru  and  Chili.  It  is,  therefore,  an 
inland  country,  its  communication  with  the  sea  being  carried  on  through  the  ports  of 
Peru,  Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Republic.  Recent  explorations  in  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Parana,  give  reason  to  believe  that  Bolivia  will  soon  be  connected  with  the 
Atlantic  by  means  of  tributaries  of  this  river,  which  are  navigable  for  steamboats 
of  considerable  draught.  Bolivia  embraces  an  area  of  567,000  square  miles.  The 
population,  about  2,000,000  in  number,  is  chiefly  of  Indian  descent. 

The  surface,  a  high  plateau  surmounted  by  lofty  peaks  of  the  Andes  in  the 
west,  descends  to  a  low,  fertile  plain  in  the  east. 

Bolivia's  products  are  mainly  mineral,  though  there  are  several  natural  products 
from  the  forests.  The  india-rubber  is  of  the  finest  quality,  and  almost  inexhaustible. 
Coca  and  cacao  are  important  products.  The  plant  from  which  coca  is  derived  is 
raised  in  the  valleys  of  the  Andes  and  exported  to  a  considerable  extent.  The 
cinchona-tree,  from  the  bark  of  which  quinine  is  produced,  was  first  discovered  in 
Bolivia.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  found  in  the  forests  along  the  entire  chain  of  the 
Andes.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  transplant  the  cinchona-tree  into  Java,  Ceylon, 
and  India,  and  with  such  success,  that  much  of  the  quinine  now  comes  from  these 
countries.  The  result  of  the  East  Indian  competition  has  been  to  reduce  the  price  of 
quinine  more  than  half. 

Bolivia  is  very  rich  in  minerals.  With  only  the  most  primitive  methods  of 
mining,  the  silver-mines  of  Potosi  are  estimated  to  have  produced  $1?,000,000,0()0 
since  their  discovery.  It  is  said  that  every  ounce  of  ore  that  finds  its  way  out  of 
the  Andes  is  carried  on  the  back  of  a  man  or  a  llama,  and  the  quartz  is  broken  by 
rolling  logs  upon  it.  By  most  primitive  methods  of  mining  and  transportation  the 
annual  output  of  silver  is  over  $10,000,000.  Besides  the  precious  metals,  co]iper, 
lead,  tin,  salt,  and  sulphur  are  found. 

There  is  now  a  railway  from  Jlolknulo,  on  the  Peruvian  coast,  to  Lake  Titicaca, 
and  some  of  the  produce  of  Bolivia  reaches  a  market  by  this  route.  Jlost  of  the 
exports  of  Bolivia,  however,  are  sent  abroad  by  way  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  exports 
comprise  silver,  Peruvian  bark,  rubber,  gum,  cacao,  coft'ee.  coca,  copper,  tin,  and  other 
ores.     Silver  forms  two-thirds  (if  tlie  value  of  tlir  exports. 

La  Paz  is  the  nominal  capital  ami  the  largest  city.  Sucre  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. 


COMMERCIA  L   UKWJRAl'UY 


169 


QUESTIONS 


What  is  the  situation  of  Venezuela  ?  Wliat 
are  its  comparative  area  and  population  ?  Wliat 
can  you  say  of  tlie  natural  resources  of  this 
country  ?  Wliat  is  the  chief  industry  of  tlie 
llanos '?  What  can  you  say  of  the  uiineral 
deposits  ?  Which  exports  are  the  more  impor- 
tant ?  What  other  exports  can  you  name  ? 
With  what  countries  is  the  greater  part  of  the 
commerce  of  Venezuela  carried  on  ?  Summa- 
rize our  own  trade  with  Venezuela.  What  is 
tlie  capital  ?  —  the  chief  seaport  ?  What  is  the 
main  export  of  Valencia  ? 

Locate  the  Argentine  Republic.  What  is 
its  comparative  area  ?  —  estimated  population  ? 
From  what  countries  is  most  of  its  immigration 
derived  ?  What  mineral  deposits  are  known  to 
exist  ?  What  great  railway  is  now  in  course 
of  construction  ?  In  what  does  the  commer- 
cial value  of  tliis  railway  line  mainly  consist  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  natural  resources  of 
Patagonia  ?  Wliat  are  the  main  exports  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  ?  Summarize  our  own  com- 
merce witli  that  country.  What  striking  fact 
can  you  name  in  respect  to  the  recent  commerce 
of  the  Argentine  Republic  ?  Describe  the  situa- 
tion of  Buenos  Ayres.  What  can  you  say  of 
its  commerce  ?  —  of  its  population  ? 

What  is  the  situation  of  Ihe  republic  of  Co- 
lombia •?  WHiat  are  its  area  and  population  ? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  surface  ?  What  in- 
dustry is  most  important  ?  Name  the  principal 
agricultural  products,  —  the  forest  products. — 
the  mineral  products.  What  are  the  leading 
exports  ?  —  imports  ?  Wliat  great  commercial 
highway  crosses  Colombia?  Name  the  cliief 
waterway.  What  commodities  are  exported  by 
way  of  the  Magdalena  River  ?  What  is  the 
principal  seaport  ?  —  the  capital  ?  Through 
what  port  is  most  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Co- 
lombia carried  on  ?  Summarize  our  own  trade 
with  this  republic. 

What  are  the  situation,  area,  and  population 
of  Chili  ?  What  can  you  say  of  its  surface  in 
the  north  ?  —  in  the  central  part  ?  —  in  the 
south  ?  What  are  the  products  of  each  of  these 
sections  ?  What  minerals  does  the  country 
yield  ?     Name  the  leading  exports,  —  the  im- 


ports. Summarize  our  own  trade  with  Chili. 
What  is  tlie  capital?  —  the  chief  seaport? 
What  port  on  the  upper  coast  ? 

Describe  the  situation  of  Uruguay.  What  are 
its  comparative  area  and  population  ?  What 
natural  advantages  for  commerce  has  this  re- 
public ?  What  is  tlie  nature  of  the  surface  ? 
In  what  does  the  chief  wealth  of  the  country 
consist  ?  What  are  the  most  important  field- 
products  ?  With  what  country  is  most  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Uruguay  carried  on  ?  What  is 
the  leading  export  ?  What  are  the  leading  im- 
ports ?  Summarize  our  own  trade  with  this 
republic.  What  Is  the  capital  and  chief  sea- 
port ?  AVhat  great  river,  with  its  tributaries, 
traverses  the  territory  of  Uruguay  ? 

What  are  the  situation,  area,  and  population 
of  Ecuador  ?  Wliat  Is  the  most  important  agri- 
cultural product  ?  What  minerals  are  found  ? 
What  country  absorbs  most  of  the  trade  of 
Ecuador  ?  What  are  the  more  important  ex- 
ports ?  What  is  the  capital? — the  chief  sea- 
port ?  What  are  the  principal  shipments  from 
Guayaquil  ? 

What  are  the  situation,  area,  and  population 
of  Peru  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  its  western 
surface  ?  Where  are  the  most  fertile  lands  situ- 
ated ?  By  what  means  has  Peru  communication 
with  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America  ? 
What  are  the  priiir-ii.al  PX,H)rts  of  Peru  ?  What 
causes  Ir-il  ii.  tlir  iiiiii.^\i'ii-linii-iit  of  this  repub- 
lic? Wliai  i^  ilir  .  ,ii,ii;ii  .1  W i  1  h  what  seaport 
is  Lima  cuinHTinl  Ijy  i;iilu:i_v  '.' 

What  are  tlio  situation,  area,  and  population 
of  Paraguay  ?  Describe  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face. Where  is  the  forest  area  ?  What  minerals 
are  found  ?  What  crops  are  of  importance  ? 
What  is  the  leading  export  ?  What  other  ex- 
ports can  you  name  ?  What  are  the  principal 
imports  ?    What  city  is  the  capital  ? 

Describe  the  situation  of  Bolivia.  Through 
what  countries  is  its  foreign  commerce  carried 
on  ?  What  are  its  area  and  population  ?  What 
minerals  are  largely  produced  ?  Which  of  tlieso 
is  the  most  important  ?  What  other  products 
can  you  naine  ?  What  are  the  chief  exports  I 
What  is  the  capital  ? 


160  COMMERCIAL   CF.OGRAPHY 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

COMMODITIES  IMPORTANT  TO  COMMERCE 

I. —  FOOD     SUBSTANCES 

Beef  and  Beef  Products.  —  Xo  other  species  of  auimal  is  of  so  great  service  to 
maiikiiid  as  that  conimonl3'  known  as  neat-cattle.  From  the  most  remote  times 
these  animals  have  been  closely  associated  with  the  industries  of  mankind  as  beasts 
of  burden,  in  tilling  the  soil,  and  in  gathering  the  harvests.  Their  flesh  serves  as 
one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food  for  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  world's  population, 
while  milk  and  other  dairy  products  probably  rank  next  after  grain  and  meat  in 
the  order  of  value.  Leather,  made  from  their  hides,  is  used  in  one  form  or  another 
by  three-fourths  of  the  world's  population;  and  the  horns,  hoofs,  and  hair  are  utilized 
in  a  variety  of  ways. 

Cattle  are  reared  for  different  objects.  In  thickly  inhabited  countries  milk- 
producing  qualities  are  most  desirable,  while  in  grazing  countries  beef-producing 
qualities  are  sought.  The  cattle  interests  of  the  United  States  are  greater  than 
those  of  any  other  country.^  Our  dairy  interests  alone  represent  an  investment  of 
twenty  times  the  bank  capital  of  the  country.  The  number  of  milch  cows  in  the 
United  States  is  estimated  at  17,500,000,  with  an  average  yearly  yield  of  350  gal- 
lons of  milk  each.  The  quantity  of  butter  made  is  nearly  1,400,000,000  pounds, 
and  of  cheese  300,000,000  pounds  annually.  In  1899  the  value  of  the  dairy  products 
was  estimated  at  $500,000,000,  —  a  sum  exceeding  the  value  of  the  wheat  crop.  The 
value  of  the  beef,  butter,  cheese,  leather,  and  other  products  of  beef,  exported  from 
the   United   States    is   annually  more  than  $50,000,000.-      The   other   chief  beef- 

1  The  number  of  cattle  slaughtered  and*dressed  for  market  in  Chicago,  the  centre  of  the 
American  heef  business,  is  annually  about  two  millions. 

"■^  The  total  export  of  provisions,  including  meat  and  dairy  products,  in  1899  was  §175,508,000. 
In  1899  over  500,000  cattle  were  inspected  by  the  government  for  export.  Averaging  abnut  1.400 
poimds  apiece,  these  cattle  represent  700,000,000  pounds  live  weight,  of  which  about  4l'0.iiimi,00(> 
pounds  would  be  available  for  food.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the  whole  of  our  contribution  to  tlie 
worl.r.s  sii|,].ly  of  luvf.  Til  Hit-  saiiu-  ywir  the  t'xpi.rls  ..f  fresh  beef  were  282,139.974  i«.iin<ls, 
vaUinl  ;ii  SL':;.;,|,',. 1)1111,  :nii|  ih,.  cximiis  (.f  caiincil,  s;\ltcil,  and  othor  cured  beef  amounti'il  to 
84,'.Ms,:;|s  jhhumI,,  miIihiI  :iI  sii.ii_".i.ti77.  In  all,  tlic  wriLilit  of  beef  shipped  abroad,  live,  .slaugh- 
tered, ami  pacluil,  ixciciUd  l,oiiU,i)OU.UUU  pounds.  .Mo.si  of  the  cattle  for  export  were  taken  from 
the  states  of  the  West.  Iowa  is  the  greatest  dairying  state,  producing  about  one-tenth  of  the 
product  of  the  whole  country,  but  the  beef  supply  comes  mainly  from  the  ranges  still  farther 
west. 

The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  nearly  44,000,000.  About 
1,. 305,000  square  miles  are  devoted  entirely  to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  being  mainly  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  pastures  of  the  buffalo  herds  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.     The  large  supplies  of 


COMMEItCIAI.   (;!■:()(;  I!  A  I'll  Y  161 

pi-odiicing  countries  are  the  Argentine   Republic  and  Uruguay.     In  Europe,  dairy 
liroducts  and  beef  are  exported  by  The  Netherlands,  Denmark,  and  Ireland. 

Fish.  —  Fish  are  found  in  abundance  and  variety  in  nearly  all  waters,  salt  and 
fresh.  Coininercially,  the  salt-water  fisheries  are  of  much  the  greater  value,  and  the 
important  ones  are  few  in  number.  The  Banks  oft'  the  coast  of  Newfoundland 
and  Nova  Scotia  are  the  most  prolific  fishing-grounds,  and  are  yearly  visited  by 
about  5000  vessels.  The  largest  fleet  of  these  vessels  hails  from  tlie  United  States. 
The  other  countries  represented  are  Canada,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Norway. 
The  fishing-banks  next  'in  productiveness  are  those  north  of  Norway,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Iceland.  The  north  Pacific  Ocean,  in  the  vicinity  of  Alaska  and 
the  island  chains,  also  contains  valuable  fishing-grounds.  The  Japanese  have  a 
considerable  fleet  in  the  northwestern  part  of  this  ocean,  but  along  the  American 
coast  fishing  is  less  vigorously  pursued.  Within  two  years,  however,  many  vessels 
have  been  added  to  the  fleets  sailing  from  Sau  Francisco,  Puget  Sound,  and  British 
Columbia. 

Codfish,  the  most  abundant  of  salt-water  food-fishes,  are  caught  on  all  great  banks, 
as  are  also  halibut.  ]\Iackerel  are  caught  in  the  north  Atlantic  near  the  shore. 
These  three  species  are  the  only  salt-water  fishes  of  great  commercial  value.  The 
young  of  the  herring  and  menhaden  are  caught  in  abundance  on  the  coast  of  Maine, 
and  canned  as  "  sardines."  Red-snappers,  croakers,  and  shrimp  are  taken  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Shad  and  salmon  are  salt-water  fish  that  run  into  fresh  water  to 
spawn.  Shad  abound  in  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  and  salmon  in  the  rivers 
of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  leading  salmon-fisheries  of  the  world  are  along  the  Colum- 
bia River  and  the  numerous  rivers  of  Alaska.  Salmon  abound  also  in  Okhotsk  Sea; 
but  these  fisheries  are  not  developed. 

In  Europe  cod,  halibut,  haddock,  and  herring  are  the  leading  fish.  Sardines  are 
caught  oil  the  coast  of  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  near  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 

Other  salt-water  live  products  are  oysters,  clams,  and  lobsters.  The  most 
extensive  shell-fish  beds  in  the  world  are  along  the  coast  of  the  United  States. 
Chesapeake  Bay  is  the  principal  seat  of  oyster-dredging;  but  there  are  valuable  beds 
on  the  coasts  of  New  England,  Long  Island,  and  New  Jersey,  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Large  beds  of  oysters  have  been  planted  on  our  Pacific  coast.  In  Europe 
most  of  the  oysters  come  from  the  coasts'  of  France  and  Holland.  Lobsters  are 
caught  along  the  coasts  of  New  England  and  Canada  in  North  America,  and  of 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Norway  in  Europe. 

The  inland  fisheries  of   many  countries  furnish  valuable   food   supplies;    but. 


fresh  beef  formerly  drawn  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  come  to  market  no  longer  ;  but 
instead,  the  supplies  for  eastern  cities  and  for  export  are  mainly  drawn  from  the  far  western  states 
and  teniiories.     'I'liis  is  bi  caiLsc,  as  the  value  of  land  rises,  it  becomes  unprofitable  to  employ  it  in 

cattle-inisiiiL:.  .  s]i.  i  i;ill\  in  , petition  with  the  beef  from  the  far  west,  shipped  at  the  low  prices 

that  havr  |iiv\,iil.  .i  .liiiih^  rrciiit  years.  The  export  of  fresh  beef  is  of  comparatively  recent 
developuit'iit  ami  i>  diu  >..!(  I\  to  improved  means  for  ocean  transportation. 


162  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

owing  to  the  fact  that  the  fish  cannot  be  transported  far,  they  are  of  little  commer- 
cial value.  In  the  United  States  the  whiteiish  of  the  Great  Lakes  are  of  consider- 
able commercial  consequence.  The  sturgeon  of  the  Volga  River  in  Russia  are  the 
most  important  product  of  the  inland  fisheries  of  Europe. 

Fish-culture  is  now  carried  on  by  nearly  all  leading  nations,  and  valuable  food- 
fish  from  one  part  of  the  world  are  transported  to  other  parts  and  planted  in 
exhausted  fisheries. 

The  value  of  the  annual  product  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States/  is  more 
than  $50,000,000.  The  most  important  are  the  general  sea-fisheries,  the  oyster-fish- 
eries being  next  in  value.  The  annual  products  of  the  fisheries  exported  from  the 
United  States  are  more  than  six  millions  of  dollars  in  value,  canned  salmon  repre- 
senting nearly  one-third  of  this  amount. 

Pork  and  Pork  Products.  —  Swine  have  always  been  a  source  of  food  supply  in 
Europe  and  Asia.  In  warmer  countries  the  flesh  is  not  considered  wholesome. 
In  Europe  the  raising  of  swine  is  confined  mainly  to  Great  Britain  and  the  Balkan 
states.  But  rearing  swine  and  curing  pork  is  a  greater  industry  in  the  United 
States  than  in  any  other  country.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  our  staple  crop,  Indian 
corn,  affords  the  best  food  for  these  animals,  American  pork  is  superior  to  that  of 
Europe,  as  i*  makes  the  flesh  harder.  The  leading  pork-producing  states  are,  Iowa, 
Illinois,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana,  Nebraska,  and  Texas.  For  the  year  end- 
ing March  1, 1899,  the  "number  of  hogs  packed  in  Chicago  was  over  eight  millions ;  in 
Kansas  City,  two  and  a  half  millions ;  while  the  total  number  packed  and  marketed 
in  the  country  was  more  than  twenty-three  millions. 

The  value  of  the  exports  of  hog-products  from  the  United  States  in  1899  was 
$115,000,000.     This  includes  bacon,  ham,  salted  and  pickled  pork,  lard  and  lard-oil. 

Barley.  —  Barley  was  formerly  used  for  food  in  northern  countries,  where  it 
was  supposed  that  wheat  would  not  grow.  But  wheat  has  very  generally  super- 
seded it,  both  as  a  crop  and  as  a  food ;  and  barley  is  now  mainly  used  in  the  brewing 
of  malt  liquors.  For  this  purpose  it  is  steeped  in  water  and  then  fermented,  being 
thereby  converted  into  malt.  Barley  is  cultivated  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  forms  a  small  export.  Germany,  England,  and  Austria,  the  chief  brew- 
ing countries  of  the  world,  consume  most  of  the  barley  of  commerce. 

Cocoa.  —  The  cocoa-tree,  grows  mainly  in  America,  to  which  continent  it  is  indi- 
genous. Cocoa  is  an  important  article  of  commerce  in  the  Spanish  American  nations, 
the  United  States,  and  Spain.  In  its  various  forms  the  products  of  this  tree  are 
called  nibs,  shells,  cocoa,  chocolate,  broma,  etc.  The  greatest  consumers  of  the 
beverages  made  from  the  cocoa-seed  are  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  who  have  long 
preferred  them  to  either  coffee  or  tea.  The  manufacture  of  chocolate  is  an  increas- 
ing industry  in  France,  from  which  country  our  own  supply  of  this  product  is 
chiefly  derived.  We  take  cocoa,  shells,  and  leaves  from  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies  to  the  annual  value  of  about  $3,500,000. 


coMMEiiciAi.  <:E(k:i!M'IIY  163 

Coffee.  —  CottVe  was  in  use  in  Arabia  Ion-  boi'oi-c  it  was  known  in  Kuropo.  Hut 
since  its  iutroductiou  to  the  euiiuneri-ial  world,  I'OO  years  ago,  its  eonsumptiou  has 
enormously  increased.  Its  growth  is  limited  to  a  few  countries.  A  century  ago 
coffee-growing  was  introduced  into  Brazil,  and  half  the  world's  supply  now  comes 
from  that  country.  Java  ranks  next  in  the  amount  produced.  The  rest  of  the 
supply  comes  from  Ceylon,  Ab^-ssinia,  Arabia,  the  West  Indies,  Liberia,  and  Central 
and  South  America. 

The  best  variety  is  grown  in  Yemen,  a  province  in  Arabia  of  which  Mocha  is 
the  capital ;  and  the  coffee  derives  its  name  from  that  city.  The  product  of  Java 
stands  next  in  favor;  but  nearly  all  of  the  "Mocha"  and  much  of  the  ".lava" 
coffee  consumed  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Brazil. 

Coffee  is  not  grown  in  the  United  States,  yet  this  country  consumes  more  than 
any  other  nation.  The  average  annual  importation  is  about  870,000,000  pounds,  an 
amount  greater  than  that  used  by  Austria,  France,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain 
together.  The  total  consumption  in  the  United  States  is  over  ten  pounds  per 
I'lipita.  Two  countries  of  Europe,  the  J^^etherlands  and  Belgium,  show  even  a  larger 
consuniption  per  capita  than  this.  Of  the  coffee  used  in  the  United  States,  Brazil 
furnishes  seventy  per  cent. 

Fruits.  —  The  introduction  of  steamship  navigation  has  made  the  interchange 
of  fruit-products  among  nations  a  vci y  iiii|iiivtaiit  braucli  of  commerce.  Oranges  are 
raised  chiefly  in  the  West  in.liis.  l''loii,l;i.  ('alit'oi'iiia,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Asia  Minor; 
lemons,  in  Italy,  Spain,  the  ^\'l■sr  Indies.  Kloviila.  and  California:  pine-apples,  in  the 
W^est  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America ;  bananas,  in  Central  America,  tropical 
South  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico ;  figs,  in  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  Florida, 
and  California ;  dates,  in  northern  Africa  and  Arabia ;  prunes  and  plums,  in  Austria, 
France,  Turkey,  and  Italy ;  and  grape-raisins,  in  Spain,  France,  Turkey,  and  Cali- 
fornia. Owing  to  the  perishable  nature  of  the  commodity,  traffic  in  many  small 
fruits  is  limited  to  adjoining  countries. 

The  United  States  anmially  imports  fruits  and  nuts  to  the  vahie  of  nearly  $20,000,000,  the 
leading  item  being  bananas  to  tlif  vnhie  of  over  §4,000,000. 

Tlie  apples  of  conjan  n,  air  >lii]i].iMl  mainly  from  tlie  United  States,  thougli  Canada  has  some 
trade  in  this  fruit.  The  valw  m|  iiijili  s.  L;reen  and  dried,  exported  from  the  United  States  in  18il9 
was  nearly  .§2,500,000,  ami  liir  sanu-  yar  canned  fruits  were  exported  to  nearly  tlie  same  value. 

Maize.  —  ^laize,  or  Indian  corn,  is  the  leading  food-crop  of  the  United  States, 
and,  with  the  manufactures  from  it,  is  of  great  commercial  value.  This  cereal 
requires  a  warmer  climate  than  wheat,  and  is  therefore  raised  chiefly  in  the  states 
south  of  the  wheat-growing  belt.  Corn  is  the  main  food-supply  of  the  people  of 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  South  America,  and  is  an  important  element  of  diet 
in  southern  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States.  Besides  entering  directly  into 
the  food-supply  of  many  nations,  corn  is  largely  used  in  fattening  cattle  and  swine 
for  market,  its  fattening  properties  exceeding  those  of  any  other  grain.  It  also 
enters  into  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  liquors,  starch,  and  glucose. 
Corn  starch  is  a  common  article  of  diet  in  the  United  States,  and  is  extensively 


164  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

exported.  The  Kingsford  factory  at  Oswego,  New  York,  produces  25,000,000  pounds 
of  starch  annually.  Glucose,  or  "  grape  "  sugar,  is  largely  used  in  making  confec- 
tionery, and  various  food  products  in  which  sweetening  is  required.  Much  the 
greater  part  of  the  Indian  corn  supply  of  the  world  is  raised  in  the  United  States. 
The  farm  value  of  our  corn  crop  in  1899  was  estimated  at  over  $600,000,000. 

Potatoes.  —  The  potato  is  cultivated  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  civilized 
world,  and  is  au  important  reliance  for  food  to  the  mass  of  people  in  Germany  and 
Ireland  In  most  other  European  countries,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  it  is  also  used  to  a  very  great  extent. 

Except  in  a  year  when  the  crop  of  some  consuming  nation  is  a  failure,  this 
tuber  is  of  but  little  commercial  value.  In  1887,  when  the  crop  in  the  United  States 
was  small,  potatoes  were  imported  to  the  value  of  over  $i3,i500,000,  most  of  the 
supply  coming  from  Canada,  Scotland,  and  England. 

In  the  warm  and  in  equatorial  regions  a  species  called  the  "sweet  potato"  is 
extensively  raised.  This  and  a  similar  tuber,  called  the  yam,  are  a  considerable 
export  when  the  crop  is  harvested,  but  they  keep  only  a  short  time. 

Common  potatoes  are  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  Like  maize,  the 
potato  is  indigenous  to  America;  but  it  is  now  cultivated  in  all  civilized  lands  ;  and 
its  comparative  consumption  is  greater  in  some  European  countries  —  notably  in 
Ireland  and  Germany  —  than  in  our  own. 

Eice.  —  Eice,  the  main  food  supply  of  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia,  is  a 
staple  article  of  diet  for  a  greater  number  of  people  than  any  other  food  product. 
In  the  commerce  of  the  more  advanced  nations,  howevei-,  it  plays  a  comparatively 
small  part,  since  it  is  not  used  largely  as  food  either  in  Europe  or  Xorth  America. 
Eice  is  grown  to  greater  perfection  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  North  Carolina, 
Louisiana,  and  Mississippi  than  in  Asia;  yet  most  of  the  world's  supply  comes  from 
China,  the  East  Indies,  Korea,  and  Egypt. 

Sugar.  —  Sugar  is  an  article  of  great  commercial  value,  and  in  the  past  century 
has  received  more  attention  than  any  other  vegetable  food  product.  The  greatest 
source  of  supply  has  always  been  the  sugar-cane  of  the  East  and  the  West  Indies. 
Sugar  is  a  constituent  part  of  nearly  all  vegetable  products.  By  careful  cultivation 
of  a  variety  of  beets  called  the  sugar-beet,  the  amount  of  sugar  in  them  has  been 
greatly  increased.  The  latter  grows  in  a  more  temperate  climate  than  that  required 
by  the  sugar-cane,  and  is  raised  to  great  perfection  in  continental  Europe. 

The  annual  sugar  product  of  the  world  now  reaches  7,300,000  tons,  over  half  nf 
which  is  made  from  tlie  beet.  Germany  leads  in  the  production  of  beet-sugar,  and 
is  followed  in  order  by  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Belgium,  and  the  United  States. 
The  sugar  made  from  cane  is  slightly  more  soluble  than  that  made  from  the  beet, 
and  hence  has  a  sweeter  taste.  By  governmental  patronage  and  a  system  of 
bounties,  beet-sugar  has  grown  to  be  an  important  rival  of  cane-sugar.  The 
more  important  caue-sugar  regions  are  Cuba,  Java,  Brazil,  Egypt,  the    Philippine 


COMMEHCIAL    C!  tldCI!  M'H  Y  165 

Islands,  Feni,  India,  tlio  United  States,'  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  sugar  is 
extracted  from  tlie  eane  in  the  country  where  it  is  j,'rown.  The  crystalline  part  of 
the  extract  is  the  raw  sugar  of  commerce,  and  the  liquid  part  is  the  molasses.  In 
the  United  States  most  of  the  sugar-refining,  or  manufacture  of  white  sugar,  is  done 
in  P.rooklyn,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  San  Francisco. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  is  about  2,000,000  tons  a  year. 
Of  this  amount  Cuba  furnishes  a  large  proportion.  The  rest  comes  chiefly  from 
other  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  from  Germany,  and 
i'rom  Brazil.  Louisiana  is  the  only  state  in  the  Union  in  which  sugar-cane  to  any 
considerable  amount  is  grown.  The  manufacture  of  beet-sugar  has  become  an  active 
industry  in  many  states,  the  product  amounting  in  1898  to  122,000  tons.  Our 
government  has  experimented  with  sorghum  for  several  years,  but  it  is  yet  a  ques- 
tion whether  sugar  can  profitably  be  made  from  the  sorghum  cane.  The  making  of 
glucose,  or  "grape-sugar,"  from  corn  is  an  active  industry  in  the  United  States. 
Sugar  is  made  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  parts  of  Canada  from  the  sap  of  the 
sugar-maple,  but  the  crop  is  small  and  of  but  little  commercial  consequence. 

An  important  industry  connected  with  the  growing  of  sugar-cane  is  the  manu- 
facture of  rum.     This  spirit  is  obtained  by  distilling  fermented  molasses. 

Tea.  —  Tea  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  has 
now  become  an  important  article  of  commerce.  China  produces  a  large  part  of  the 
world's  supply.  The  other  tea-produciug  countries  are  India,  Japan,  Java,  and 
Ceylon.  India  is  fast  assuming  chief  importance  as  a  tea-growing  country,  and 
furnishes  more  tea  for  the  English  market  than  China.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  tea-culture  into  South  America,  Australia,  South  Africa,  and  the  United 
States,  but  with  little  success. 

There  are  two  leading  kinds  of  tea  and  several  grades  of  each  kind.  Black  tea 
comes  from  China  and  India,  while  green  tea  comes  from  Japan  and  to  a  limited 
extent  from  China. 

Australia,  Great  I'.ritain,  and  Russia  are  the  three  greatest  tea-consuming 
countries;  and  in  these  countries  the  use  of  coffee  is  decreasing.  In  the  United 
States  there  is  an  increasing  consumption  of  coffee  and  a  decreasing  consumption  of 
tea.  The  importation  of  tea  into  the  United  States  is  about  96,000,000  pounds  a 
year,  nearly  all  of  it  coming  from  China  and  Japan. 

In  several  South  American  states  a  kind  of  tea  called  Paraguay  tea,  or  yerha 
matt',  is  used.  It  is  an  important  article  of  traffic  in  South  America,  particularly 
among  the  native  population. 

'  There  is  prospect  of  a  considerable  extension  of  sugar-makins  in  Florida  now  that  much  rich 
sugar-land  is  being  reclaimed  by  drainage.  The  average  crop  of  Louisiana  is  about  300,000  tons, 
but  there  are  .sugar-lands  in  the  state  sufficient  to  double  or  even  triple  this  production.  Texas  lia-s 
many  tlK.usand  arris  nf  fine  sugar-lands,  and  is  rapidly  developing  this  industry.  Michigan,  Cali- 
fornia, I  "I  all,  Xiliriska,  and  other  states  produce  beet-.sugar  in  increasing  quantities.  He  fore  the 
present  cniiuiv  ilnsts  an  enormous  increa.se  is  promised  in  the  sugar  production  of  the  United 
States,  but  it  will  for  a  long  time  be  less  than  the  consumption. 


166  COMMEUCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Wheat.  —  Wheat  is  the  food  grain  of  the  more  civilized  nations  of  the  world,  and 
the  leading  grain  crop  of  Europe.  It  grows  in  almost  any  climate  except  the  hot 
belts,  but  it  reaches  the  greatest  perfection  in  those  parts  of  the  Temperate  Zone  where 
the  summers  are  very  hot  and  the  winters  cold.  The  rich  soil  and  rigorous  climate 
of  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States  and  the  southern  part  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  provide  the  best  conditions  for  raising  this  grain,  and  more  than  a  quarter 
of  the  world's  supply  is  grown  in  this  territory.  The  other  leading  wheat-producing 
sections  of  the  world  are  the  rich  plains  of  Russia  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  Austria- 
Hungary,  the  Balkan  states,  France,  and  India.  Wheat  is  also  grown  in  Germany, 
Denmark,  England,  and  Australia,  but  not  in  quantities  sufficient  to  supply  the 
home  demand. 

The  quantity  of  wheat  raised  to  the  acre  is  dependent  largely  upon  the  weather; 
but  the  average  productiveness  of  the  northwestern  states  of  the  Union  is  far  in 
excess  of  that  of  other  wheat-producing  countries.  While  the  Dakotas,  Minnesota, 
and  Illinois  produce  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre,  Russia  and  the 
Balkan  states  produce  from  six  to  ten,  India  about  the  same  quantity,  but  of  inferior 
quality,  and  Australia  from  three  to  eight  bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  international  trade  in  wheat  and  wheat-flour  now  far  exceeds  that  in  any 
other  vegetable  food-product,  and  in  fact  is  only  surpassed  by  that  in  raw  and  man- 
ufactured textiles.  It  may  be  generally  stated  that  wheat  is  bought  by  the  nations 
of  western  Europe,  and  sold  by  the  United  States  and  Russia. 


II.  — TEXTILE   SUBSTANCES. 

Cotton.  —  Cotton  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  vegetable  fibres.  The  cotton 
plant  is  found  on  all  the  continents,  but  the  American  plant  produces  the  most 
valuable  fibre.  The  annual  product  of  all  the  cotton-growing  countries  is  about 
14,000,000  bales,  the  average  weight  to  the  bale  being  500  pounds.  Four-fifths  of  the 
supply  come  from  the  United  States ;  the  rest  from  the  East  Indies,  Egypt,  Brazil, 
the  West  Indies,  and  Turkey. 

Cotton,  as  grown  in  the  United  States,  is  of  two  kinds, — the  "sea-island," 
which  has  a  long  fibre  and  grows  on  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Georgia,  Florida, 
and  South  Carolina;  and  "upland,"  which  grows  on  the  mainland.  Nearly  all  the 
cotton  of  commerce  is  upland,  and  this  is  divided  into  a  dozen  or  more  distinct 
qualities.  Searisland  cotton  is  too  expensive  for  general  manufacture.  Nearly  all 
the  cotton  product  of  the  United  States  is  grown  in  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Texas, 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cotton.  Great  Britain  leads  all  other  nations ;  the  United 
States  ranks  second,  Germany  third,  and  France  fourth.  But  while  the  number  ol 
spindles  is  not  increasing  in  Great  Britain,  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  United  States 
During  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  the  export  of  raw  cotton  from  the  United 
States  has  averaged  over  $200,000,000  in  value  a  year. 


CUMMEllCIAL   GEOCHAI'IIY.  167 

Flax.  —Flax  is  a  vosotablo  iil.re  fnmi  wliirh  inucli  of  tin-  cloth  of  the  world  was 
made  until  the  great  expansion  of  cotton-growing  in  the  United  States.  Cotton 
fibre  is  more  easily  gathered,  requires  no  bleaching,  and  is,  therefore,  cheaper; 
it  has  generally  superseded  flax  in  use.  The  process  of  preparing  the  plant  by 
which  the  fibre  is  made  ready  for  manufacture  is  elaborate  and  expensive.  The 
stalk  is  first  softened  and  rotted  so  as  to  separate  the  bark  ;  then  by  a  slow 
process  the  fibre  is  removed.  This,  made  white  by  bleaching,  is  the  linen  of 
commerce.  Flax  is  grown  chiefly  in  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  France, 
Belgium,  Ireland,  The  Netherlands,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  The  spinning  and  weaving  of  linen  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  in  Great 
Britain,  Qermany,  and  France.  Belfast,  in  Ireland,  is  a  great  centre  of  the  linen- 
spinning  industry.  In  the  United  States  a  variety  of  flax  is  grown  also  for  the 
seeds,  which  are  used  in  making  linseed-oil. 

Hemp.  —  Hemp  fibre  is  coarser  than  flax.  It  is  very  strong,  and  is  used  in 
making  cordage.  Two-thirds  of  the  supply  used  in  the  United  States  comes  from 
the  I'hilippiue  Islands.  In  1899  the  total  import  of  hemp  and  other  coarse 
vegetable  fibres  for  making  cordage  and  similar  articles  aggregated  in  value  nearly 
If  18,000,000. 

Sisal  grass,  or  sisal  hemp,  sometimes  called  henequin,  is  the  leading  crop  of 
Yucatan,  and  forms  an  important  export  to  the  United  States.  The  trade  in  this 
article  has  increased  from  a  few  thousand  dollars  to  over  $9,000,000  annually.  This 
gras.s  is  used  in  making  cordage,  hammocks,  and  similar  articles. 

Jute.  —  Jute  is  a  coarser  fibre  than  hemp  or  flax.  It  is  grown  mainly  in  India, 
and  is  largely  manufactured  there.  The  principal  use  of  jute  is  for  making  very 
coarse  cloth  called  "gunny,"  or  burlaps.  The  cloth  is  used  extensively  in  commerce 
for  protecting  articles  from  wear,  and,  when  made  into  bags,  for  carrying  com- 
modities, which  are  thus  more  conveniently  handled  than  in  bulk. 

From  this  fibre  a  coarse  kind  of  paper  is  also  made.  Its  various  manufactures 
are  largely  developed  in  Scotland,  Dundee  being  especially  celebrated  for  this 
industry.  A  large  part  of  our  own  supply  of  jute  manufactures  is  derived  from 
Scotland.  We  import  but  little  jute  fibre,  having  nearer  at  hand  a  cheaper  and 
better  article  for  the  same  uses  in  sisal  hemp. 

Silk.  —  Silk  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  from  China,  where  silk-worms  have 
been  carefully  reared  for  centuries.  This  culture  has  been  extended  into  Italy, 
Japan,  India,  France,  Russia,  and  elsewhere ;  but  half  the  world's  supply  of  silk 
still  comes  from  China,  where  the  industry  is  more  skilfully  carried  on,  and  the 
other  countries  named  depend  largely  upon  China  for  silk-worm  eggs. 

Silk  is  extensively  manufactured  in  China,  Japan,  and  India,  and  the  goods  are 
exported ;  but  the  exports  of  raw  silk  from  these  countries  is  much  more  important. 
France  is  the  leading  silk-manufacturing  country  of  Europe  ;  and  Lyons,  the  centre 
of  the  industry,  is  the  chief  silk-market  of   the   world.     Germany   ranks  next  to 


168  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAI'llY 

Fi-anee  in  tliis  manufacture,  Crefeld  being  the  most  important  centre  of  it  there. 
Tlie  chief  Lyons  product  is  dress-goods,  while  that  of  Crefehl  is  silk  velvet.  The 
United  States  stands  third  as  a  silk-manufacturing  nation,  and  New  York  and  New 
Jersey  are  the  leading  states  in  this  industry.  The  product  is  mainly  sewing-silk, 
ribbons,  and  handkerchiefs,  though  the  manufacture  of  dress-goods  and  velvets  is 
rapidly  increasing.  Silk  cloth  is  very  generally  worn  in  China  and  Japan,  but  there 
are  no  statistics  by  which  a  comparison  can  be  made  between  the  manufactured 
product  of  these  countries  and  that  of  western  nations. 

In  1890  raw  silk  was  imported  into  the  United  States  to  the  value  of  $32,000,000 
—  more  than  half  of  it  coming  from  Japan.  The  importation  of  manufactured  silk 
during  the  same  year  was  about  $25,000,000. 

Wool.  —  Sheep  are  raised  in  most  countries,  flourishing  best  where  the  climate 
is  temperate  and  pasturage  ample.  In  wool-growing,  Australasia,  with  an  annual  out- 
put of  520,000,000  pounds,  takes  first  rank.  The  Argentine  Republic  stands  second 
as  a  wool-growing  nation,  Russia  third,  and  the  United  States  fourth.  Wool  is  the 
largest  agricultural  export  of  Great  Britain,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  wool  of 
commerce  comes  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Russia,  and  the  Argentine  Republic, 
in  which  countries  the  fibre  is  but  little  manufactured ;  while  in  the  United  States 
wool  is  very  extensively  manufactured,  and  the  home  supply,  though  very  large, 
does  not  equal  the  demand.  Australian  wool  goes  almost  wholly  to  Great  Britain  ; 
Argentine  wool  is  sold  to  the  United  States,  Belgium,  and  Germany. 

Great  Britain  is  the  leading  wool-manufacturing  nation.  France  is  second,  the 
United  States  third,  Germany  fourth,  and  Austria-Hungary  fiftli.  The  manu- 
facture of  wool  in  the  United  States  has  its  principal  seats  in  New  England,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania;  the  leading  sheep-raising  states  are  California,  Oregon, 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas.  Usually  the  wool  is  clipped 
from  the  sheep  once  a  year,  but  in  California  and  other  warm  sections  there  are  two 
clips  annually.  The  yearly  production  of  wool  in  tlie  world  amounts  to  about 
2,500,000,000  pounds,  and  of  this  the  United  States  consumes  nearly  one-eighth. 

Several  other  kinds  of  wool  besides  that  of  the  sheep  are  used  in  making 
fabrics.  The  silky  wool  of  the  Angora  goat,  used  for  very  fine  and  costly  fabrics, 
comes  chiefly  from  Asia  Minor,  though  the  Angora  goat,  has  been  introduced  into 
South  Africa  and  Australia.  This  wool,  which  is  called  mohair,  is  woven  in  Persia 
into  choice  shawls,  and  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and  elsewhere,  into  sliawls  often 
made  in  imitation  of  the  Persian  product.  The  wool  of  the  Cashmere  goat,  fro)n  the 
Himalaya  region,  is  of  two  qualities ;  the  finer  fibre  being  separated  from  the  coarser 
by  hand.  The  former  is  the  finest  quality  of  wool  grown,  and  is  exported  to  Europe 
in  small  quantities.  It  was  first  made  into  shawls  at  Cashmere  in  northern  India, 
wlience  tlie  name.  The  wool  of  the,  alpaca  and  the  llama  is  exported  to  some  extent 
from  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  chiefly  from  Peru.  Alpaca  wool  is  used  in 
weaving  sonic  of  the  finer  grades  of  dress-goods. 


COMMERCIA  J.    GKOailA  PHY 


Copper. — Xpxt  to  iron,  copper  is  the  inost  iisiful  of  metals.  It  is  found  botli 
ill  its  jmre  state  and  in  combination  with  ntlicr  mineials.  Numerous  copper-mines 
exist  in  Europe,  the  more  important  being  in  Spain  and  Germany ;  but  the  discovery 
of  rich  deposits  in  other  parts  of  the  world  has  almost  entirely  changed  the  source 
of  supply.  One-half  of  the  world's  copper  comes  from  our  own  country.  The  richest 
and  most  productive  mines  in  the  United  States  are  in  Montana,  and  in  Michigan 
along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  There  are  other  very  valuable  deposits  in  Utah, 
Arizona,  and  New  ^Afexico.  Cojiper  is  also  produced  in  Canada,  Mexico,  Chili,  Japan, 
and  Australia. 

In  electric  conductivity  this  metal  is  almost  etpial  to  silver;  and,  being  much 
cheaper  tiian  silver,  the  recent  increase  in  the  uses  of  electricity  has  greatly 
stimulated  its  production.  Copper  is  used  for  sheathing  ocean  vessels,  for  covering 
roofs,  for  numerous  domestic  purposes,  and  as  an  alloy,  not  only  with  gold  and 
silver,  but  also  for  making  brass,  which  is  the  most  extensively  used  of  all  alloys. 
It  is  likewise  a  component  element  in  bronze,  bell-metal,  gun-metal,  and  other 
compositions. 

Valuable  substances  are  obtained  from  copper  by  chemical  operations,  among 
them  verdigris,  Paris  green,  and  other  coloring  substances ;  blue  vitriol,  used  for 
electrical  purposes  and  in  the  arts ;  and  copper  paint,  which,  owing  to  the  cheapness 
of  the  substance,  is  used  on  the  bottoms  of  coasting-vessels  instead  of  sheathing. 

Gold.  —  Gold  is  one  of  the  few  metals  that  is  found  in  a  metallic  form.  As  it 
usually  occurs,  it  is  imbedded  in  quartz,  except  where  the  action  of  water  or  other 
elements  has  separated  it.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  but  the  largest 
sources  of  the  world's  supply  are  South  Africa,  the  United  States,  Australia,  and 
Russia.  The  Eand  mines  of  the  Transvaal  supply  about  one-fifth,  while  Alaska  and 
the  Canadian  Northwest  are  large  producers. 

Gold  forms  the  basis  of  the  coinage  of  nations.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in 
the  arts,  especially  in  the  making  of  jewelry  and  the  setting  of  jewels.  It  is  softer 
than  most  metals,  very  ductile,  and  so  malleable  that  it  may  be  beaten  into  leaves 
innnnrT  °f  ^^  "^"^^  i"  thickness.  When  used  in  coins  and  other  manufactured 
articles,  gold  is  mixed  with  silver,  copper,  or  other  metals,  to  give  it  a  greater 
degree  of  hardness.  Some  of  the  finest  and  most  delicate  colors  are  chemical 
combinations  of  gold,  particularly  those  colors  which  are  used  in  glass  and  porcelain 
decoration. 

Gold  is  extracted  from  the  ore  by  crusliing  the  rock  and  then  agitating  the 
finely  pulverized  ore  with  water  and  quicksilver.  The  latter  dissolves  the  gold, 
uniting  with  it  to  form  an  amalgam.  The  foreign  matter  is  washed  away,  leaving 
the  two  metals.  The  quicksilver  is  then  separated  from  the  gold  by  distillation,  and 
is  ready  to  be  used  again.     The  cyanide  process  is  used  for  certain  ores. 

In  1848  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  caused  a  rush  of  people  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  to  that  state,  and  the  amount  of  gold  mined  there  has  reached 


170  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

over  $1,000,000,000  in  value.  Three  years  later  gold  was  discovered  in  Victoria, 
Australia ;  and  the  product  of  the  mines  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Tasmania 
has  aggregated  an  equal  amount. 

Iron.  —  Iron  is  the  most  extensively  used  of  the  metals.  It  is  found  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  globe ;  but  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  come  from  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany.  The  United  States  is  the  largest  iron  and  steel 
producing  nation  in  the  world,  but  in  addition  to  the  vast  domestic  production  of 
iron,  imports  iron  and  steel  and  their  products  to  the  value  of  about  $12,000,000 
annually.  The  greater  part  of  this  is  derived  from  England  and  Germany.  The 
United  States  buys  iron  ore  from  Spain  and  Cuba. 

The  annual  export  of  these  is  rapidly  increasing  in  value.'  No  metal  is  found  in 
such  varying  quality  as  iron,  the  quality  being  graded  by  the  amount  of  other  min- 
erals existing  in  the  ore.  The  metal  is  rarely  found  in  its  pure  state.  The  most 
abundant  and  workable  ores  are  the  oxides  and  carbonates,  the  former  being  the 
most  plentiful  and  valuable.  Iron  combined  with  sulphur  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon of  all  metal  ores ;  but  it  is  used  only  in  making  sulphuric  acid. 

To  extract  iron  from  the  ore,  coal  and  ore  are  put  into  the  blast  furnace  together 
with  a  varying  amount  of  limestone.  Under  the  intense  heat  the  iron  separates 
from  the  ore,  melts,  and  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  while  the  other  ele- 
ments of  the  ore  form  a  slag  with  the  limestone.  The  latter  is  light,  and  floats  on 
the  molten  metal.  This  operation  is  called  smelting.  The  molten  iron  drawn  off 
from  the  furnace  is  the  pig-iron  of  commerce.  A  "  pig  "  is  intended  to  be  a  load  for 
one  man,  and  weighs  about  one  hundred  pounds.  The  product  of  the  iron-regions  is 
reckoned  in  the  amount  of  this  pig-iron. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  refined  iron  can  be  manufactured:  first,  by 
remelting  and  pouring  into  moulds,  thus  forming  cast-iron;  second,  by  reheating 
pig-iron  and  forging  or  rolling  it,  making  malleable,  or  wrought  iron ;  and  third,  by 
refining  the  pig-iron,  and  then  combining  with  it  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  per 
cent,  of  carbon,  thereby  making  steel.  Cast-iron  contains  four  or  five  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  and  is  brittle  and  easily  broken.  Malleable  iron  is  practically  free  from 
carbon,  and  is  tough  and  elastic.  In  chemical  composition  steel  has  a  position 
between  cast  and  malleable  iron.  It  possesses  many  valuable  properties,  however, 
that  as  iron  it  did  not  have.- 

Steel  can  be  tempered  to  give  it  almost  any  degree  of  hardness,  toughness,  or 
elasticity  according  to  the  use  to  be  made  of  it.  The  virtues  of  steel  were  known  to 
the  ancients,  as  is  shown  by  the  Damascus  sword-blades,  which  cannot  be  equalled 

1  In  1888  the  iron  and  steel  goods  exported  amounted  to  810,000,000.  In  1899  the  export 
reached  over  .593,000,000  in  value.  The  imports  of  like  goods  decreased  from  §40,000,000  in  1888 
to  812,000,000  in  1890. 

2  A  sUUistinaii  rstiiiiatcs  that  a  bar  of  iron  worth  85  becomes  worth  810  wlien  made  into 
liorseshoes  ;  x;„,  u  in  n  ,  haimcd  into  steel  and  made  into  needles  ;  83,285  when  made  into  penl<nives  ; 
829,")00  when  iiluIi  iiii  >  liutinns;  and  8240,000,  or  more  than  its  weiglit  in  gold,  when  made  into 
watcli-springs. 


COMMEHCIAL    GEOGItAI'IlY  171 

to-day.  Until  the  invi'utioii  of  Sir  Ilpury  Uessemer  the  process  of  making  steel  was 
expensive  ami  required  two  weeks  or  hniger. ' 

Much  of  the  progress  of  the  world  in  mechanical  and  labor-saving  contrivances 
is  due  to  the  great  adaptability  of  iron  for  a  multitude  of  uses ;  but  steel,  weight  for 
weight,  is  of  greater  strength  and  durability,  and  has  superseded  iron  for  many  pur- 
poses. In  the  building  of  bridges,  in  making  freight  cars,  and  in  the  framework  of 
modern  fireproof  buildings  steel  now  is  used  instead  of  wood  and  iron.  Since  the  cost 
of  making  it  has  been  so  greatly  reduced,  steel  has  taken  the  place  of  ir^n  in  many 
uses,  especially  in  those  iu  which  the  material  is  subject  to  great  wear.  Car  wlucls 
and  rails,  the  hulls  of  ocean-going  ships,  and  agricultural  implements  —  all  formerly 
made  of  iron  —  are  now  very  largely  made  of  steel. 

The  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany  make  nearly  all  of  the  world's 
supply  of  steel.  = 

Lead.  —  Lead  is  found  combined  with  other  substances,  usually  with  sulphur, 
this  mineral  being  known  as  galena.  Spain  was  formerly  the  chief  lead-producing 
countrj-,  but  of  late  years  the  United  States  has  furnished  the  largest  quantity  of 
this  metal.  Much  of  this  is  found  associated  with  silver  ore ;  the  rest,  a  relatively 
small  amount,  comes  from  the  lead-producing  districts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  .  The 
most  productive  lead-mines  in  the  world  are  in  Colorado  and  Idaho.  Rich  deposits 
are  also  worked  in  Utah,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri.  h\  the  Missouri  mines  zinc 
is  found  combined  with  the  lead.  Owing  to  the  extent  to  which  silver-mining  is 
carried  on,  Colorado  produces  immense  quantities  of  lead,  nearly  all  the  silver  found 
in  the  state  being  combined  with  lead.  This  metal  is  also  a  considerable  product  of 
Germany,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain. 

Lead  is  very  malleable,  and  is  easily  rolled  into  sheets ;  but  it  possesses  very 
little  tenacity.  It  is  so  soft  that  it  can  easily  be  cut  with  a  knife.  When  subjected 
to  heat  in  the  presence  of  air,  lead  is  converted  into  an  orange-colored  powder  com- 
monly known  as  litharge.  This  is  used  for  making  certain  pigments,  and  in  glass- 
making.  "White  lead,  which  is  the  basis  of  most  paint,  is  produced  from  this  metal 
by  chemical  process. 

1  The  old  process  for  reducing  the  amount  of  carbon  in  the  metal  to  the  required  percentage 
necessitated  great  care,  and  was  tedious.  By  the  Bessemer  process  all  the  carbon  is  first  removed 
from  the  metal,  then  the  necessary  amount  of  carbon  is  added.  The  time  needed  for  converting  the 
iron  into  steel  is  thus  reduced  from  two  weeks  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  steel  is  made  in  bottle-shaped 
iron  vessels  called  converters,  each  of  which  holds  from  five  to  ten  tons.  After  the  steel  is  formed 
in  the  converter,  the  molten  metal  Ls  poured  into  heavy  iron  moulds,  and  the  ingots  of  steel  thus 
formed  are  either  sold  to  manufacturers  of  steel  articles,  or,  as  is  often  the  ca.se,  transferred  to 
another  part  of  the  mill  and  rolled  out  into  rails  for  railways,  or  into  other  merchantable  forms. 
In  a  large  rolling-mill  the  iron  from  the  smelter  may  become  a  steel  rail  ready  for  use  in  two  hours. 

•■!  In  1899  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany  produced  28,104,000  tons  of  pig-iron. 
The  United  States  produced  the  largest  amount,  and  Great  Britain  next.  The  other  nations  in  the 
order  of  their  product  were  France,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Sweden,  and  Spain,  to 
the  total  amount  of  36,500.000  tons.  In  the  production  of  steel  in  1899  the  United  States,  (Jreat 
Britain,  and  Germany  produced  19,500,000  tons,  the  United  States  being  first,  Germany  second, 
and  (Jreat  Britain  third.     The  total  product  of  the  world  for  that  year  amounted  to  over  24,000,000 


172  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Nickel.  —  Nickel  is  one  of  the  less  abundant  minerals.  It  is  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States,  but  the  native  production  is  unimportant.  Canada  is  the 
chief  source  of  the  world's  supply,  followed  by  France  and  Germany.  In  Europe 
it  is  combined  with  copper  and  zinc,  forming  the  alloj'  known  as  "  German  silver." 
This  alloy  is  also  made  in  the  United  States,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  is  used  in 
plating  iron  and  brass  articles.  Nickel-plating  is  an  American  invention,  and  nickel- 
plated  wares  are  produced  to  a  much  greater  extent  here  than  in  any  other  country. 
In  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  a  few  other  countries,  an  alloy  with  this  metal 
is  used  ia  coins  of  small  denomination.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
in  tlie  decoration  of  pottery,  and  in  other  arts  and  manufactures. 

Quicksilver.  —  Quicksilver,  or  mercury,  is  sometimes  found  in  the  metallic  state, 
but  it  usually  occurs  in  combination  with  sulphur.  In  this  form  it  is  known  as 
cinnabar,  the  artificial  form  of  which  is  the  pigment  known  as  vermilion.  This  metal 
is  largely  employed  in  the  United  States  in  extracting  gold  and  silver  from  the 
crashed  ore.  Until  within  about  fifty  years  the  supply  was  entirely  imported.  There 
are  several  extensive  deposits  of  cinnabar  in  California;  and  her  mines  produce  the 
entire  domestic  supi^ly.  New  mines  are  reported  in  western  Texas.  Quicksilver  is 
now  exported  by  the  United  States.  Until  the  discovery  of  the  mines  in  California 
the  world's  supply  came  from  Spain,  and  Idria  in  Austria. 

Quicksilver  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  mirrors,  thermometers,  barometers, 
and  similar  instruments.     Its  salts  are  used  in  medicine. 

Silver.  —  Silver  is  rarely  found  in  its  pure  state.  It  usually  occurs  in  combina- 
tion with  other  rainerals.  In  the  great  Comstock  lode  in  Nevada,  gold  is  associated 
with  the  silver.  In  twenty-five  years  the  mines  of  this  lode  produced  these  metals 
to  the  value  of  $300,000,000.  The  discovery  of  tlie  New  "World  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  mines  of  both  the  precious  metals ;  but  tlie  production  of  silver  increased 
in  a  much  greater  ratio  than  that  of  gold,  and  for  tlie  past  fifty  years  silver  has  been 
growing  cheaper.  In  1840  the  value  of  silver  was  one-sixteenth  that  of  gold;  in 
1890  it  had  decreased  to  one-thirty-fifth. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  world's  supi^ly  of  silver  has  come  from  the  mines  of 
^Mexico,  Peru,  and  Bolivia.  The  mine  that  has  furnished  the  greatest  amount  is 
near  Potosi,  in  Bolivia,  and  it  is  estimated  to  have  produced  metal  to  the  value  of 
$2,000,000,000.  Since  the  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States,  our  own  country  has  become  the  chief  silver-producing 
nation ;  and  more  than  one-third  of  the  world's  supply  now  comes  from  the  United 
States,  —  Colorado  and  Montana  being  the  two  leading  states  in  the  yield  of  the 
metal. 

Aside  from  its  use  in  the  coinage  of  nearly  every  nation,  particularly  in  the 
making  of  small  coins,  silver  is  very  extensively  employed  in  manufactures  and  in 
the  arts.  Tlie  process  of  depositing  a  thin  coat  of  silver  on  the  surface  of  some 
cheaper  metal  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of  an  enormous  amount  of  ^jlated-ware 
for  household  and  other  purposes. 


C0M^fEnt•I^L  OEoanAniY  173 

Thp  Fiiitod  States  imports  silver  ores  to  the  value  of  about  .'§21,()0n,0(^0 
annually,  nearly  all  of  it  from  ]\[exico. 

Tin. — Tin  is  the  only  metal  of  value  that  is  not  in-odueeil  in  quantity  in  the 
United  States.  Deposits  of  it  exist  iu  the  Black  Jlills  and  in  San  Jiernardino 
County,  California;  traces  of  it  have  also  been  found  in  several  other  places. 
Hitherto,  nearly  all  of  the  tin  used  in  thi.s  country  has  been  imported.  The  mines 
of  Cornwall  in  the  southwest  of  England  have  furnished  much  of  the  world's  supply 
of  tin,  and  are  still  quite  produptive ;  but  the  richest  tin-mines  in  the  world  are  on 
the  islands  of  Banca  and  Billiton,  south  of  Indo-China,  and  in  Australia.  The 
centre  of  the  tin-trade  is  Singapore,  where  the  product  of  the  mines  of  Banca  and 
adjoining  regions  is  shipped  to  market.  Owing  to  the  development  of  our  canning 
industries,  the  United  States  is  the  greatest  tin-consuming  nation.  Tin  is  mainly 
employed  in  coating  thin  sheets  of  iron'  to  protect  the  latter  from  rust.  Tin  itself 
is  too  expensive  to  be  used  iu  sheet  form.  Tinned  iron  is  largely  employed  for 
household  utensils,  for  roofing  and  other  purposes,  as  well  as  in  the  canning 
industries.  A  large  \mvt  of  our  iron  imports  from  Great  Britain  is  classed  under 
the  head  of  "tin."  Tin  enters  into  the  alloys  known  as  pewter,  bronze,  type- 
metal,  and  britannia. 

Zinc.  —  Zinc  is  a  hard,  tough  metal,  capable  of  withstanding  considerable  heat, 
and  not  easily  corroded,  yet  it  is  volatile.  Germany  and  Belgium  are  the  chief 
sources  of  supply,  but  the  United  States  produces  one-fourth  of  the  world's  output. 
In  1899  our  export  of  zinc  was  over  a  million  dollars  in  value.  Great  Britain  and 
France  produce  small  amounts.  In  the  United  States,  this  metal  is  found  mainly  in 
Missouri  and  Kansas ;  it  is  usually  combined  with  lead  and  sulphur. 

Zinc  is  rolled  into  sheets,  and  in  this  form  is  much  used  to  protect  surfaces 
exposed  to  heat.  Deposited  in  thin  layers  over  sheet-iron  it  becomes  the  galvanized 
iron  of  commerce.     Zinc  and  copper  are  combined  to  make  brass. 

Aluminum  is  fast  assuming  commercial  importance.  Its  production  lias  incrfased  from  28;> 
pnnmls  in  lSfS5  lo  more  than  Ti, 000.000  pounds  in  1898,  valued  at  over  $1,700,000.  Aluminum  is  a 
light  silvery-looking  metal,  and  is  tlie  most  widely  distributed  of  all  metals.  It  exists  in  clay,  but 
no  method  is  yit  kn.iuii  for  its  extraction  from  this  substance.  Georgia  and  Alabama  are  the  chief 
sources  of  supply  in  the  United  States. 

■     IV.  — OTHER  MINERAL   SUBSTANCES 

Building-Stone.  —  Building-stone  abounds  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world. 
Three  kinds  are  in  general  use:  granite,  sandstone,  and  limestone.  The  granite 
used  in  the  United  States  comes  chiefly  from  the  great  cpiarries  in  Massachusetts  at 
Quincy  and  Cape  Ann;  and  to  a  less  extent  from  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Texas,  and  California. 
Granite  is  abundant  in  Scotland,  and  quarrying  it  is  a  considerable  industry.  The 
best-known  and  most  extensively  used  sandstone  is  commonly  known  as  brown- 
stone.  It  is  quarried  at  Portland,  iu  the  Connecticut  valley,  and  in  Xew  Jersey  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Belleville.     Other  varieties  of  sandstone  are  found  iu  nearly 


174  COMMERCIAL    GEOanAPHY 

every  state,  Oliio  leading  in  the  aiiiomit  produced.  Limestone,  the  crj-stalline  form 
of  which  is  called  marble,  is  found  in  ahundauce  and  iu  beautiful  colors  iu  Vermont, 
Tennessee,  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Missouri,  and  Iowa. 

Slate  is  a  rock  resulting  from  altered  clay.  It  has  numerous  uses,  and  is  found 
in  Pennsylvania,  Vermont,  Maine,  and  New  York.  .Some  of  the  most  extensive 
slate-quarries  in  the  world  are  in  Wales. 

Clay  and  Clay  Products.  —  Clay  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  useful  of 
minerals.  It  is  converted  into  brick,  terrarcotta,  china,  and  porcelain  by  working, 
moulding,  and  baking.  Different  qualities  of  clay  are  used  for  making  different 
articles.  Brick  and  terra-cotta  work  are  made  from  coarser  grades  which  usually 
contain  iron,  the  latter  giving  the  reddish  color  to  the  product.  Common  heavy 
chinaware  is  made  from  better  grades  of  clay,  while  porcelain  is  made  from  the 
finest  and  purest  white  clay,  called  kaolin.  In  the  manufacture  of  china  and  porce- 
lain a  small  proportion  of  lime  is  combined  with  the  clay  to  complete  the  chemical 
change  brought  about  by  baking. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  brick  and  terra-cotta  product  of  the  United  States 
amounts  in  value  to  $70,000,000  yearly.  Beds  of  clay  are  so  universal  that  the 
cruder  forms  of  the  manufactures  of  clay  are  produced  in  nearly  every  country  ; 
but  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  china,  and  art-pottery,  is  limited  to  a  few 
countries. 

The  finest  porcelain  is  made  in  and  near  Dresden  in  Germany,  at  Sevres  in 
France,  in  Worcestershire  in  England,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  China,  Japan,  and 
the  United  States. 

Most  of  the  common  chinaware  of  commerce,  often  called  stoneware,  is  made  in 
England.  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  rank  next  in  the  amount  produced.  This 
ware  is  also  made  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  and  Illinois. 

Large  quantities  of  artistic  pottery  are  made  in  Worcestershire,  and  elsewhere 
in  England,  to  be  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Ohio  and  New  Jersey  are  the 
leading  states  for  this  industry  in  the  United  States,  Trenton  being  famous  for  its 
pottery.     In  Cincinnati  a  kind  of  ware  called  Kookwood  pottery  is  manufactured. 

Coal.  — Coal  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  mineral  substances.  It  has  been  used 
as  fuel  for  about  three  centuries ;  but  its  great  value  has  been  demonstrated  only 
within  the  past  fifty  years,  with  the  development  of  steam-power  in  manufacturing. 
Coal  is  found  in  nearly  every  country;  but  over  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply 
come  from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Germany.  The  output  of  the 
United  States  is  now  more  than  I'dO, 00(1,000  tons,  or  more  than  the  production  of 
Great  Britain,  and  Germany  yields  about  half  as  much.  Undeveloped  coal  areas  are 
known  to  exist  in  t^hina,  Alaska,  Russia,  Turkey,  Japan,  Brazil,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

Tills  miui'ral  is  found  in  several  forms  —  the  most  important  being  the 
anthracite  and  the  bituminous  varieties.  Bituminous  coal  yields  much  gas  and 
tarrv  oil  when  heated.     In  anthracite  coal  these  are  wanting,  having  been  driven  otf 


CUMMEIICIAL   GEuallAl'IlY  175 

while  tlie  poal  was  in  the  proooss  of  fonnatioii  ;  the  coal,  therefore,  gives  an  intense 
heat  with  but  little  smoke.  The  amount  of  manufacturing  that  can  be  done  in  a 
country,  particularly  in  iron  and  steel  working,  is  limited  by  the  amount  of  fuel  at 
hand.  In  Sweden,  where  very  little  coal  is  mined,  but  vast  forest  areas  are  near 
by,  charcoal  is  used,  instead  of  coal,  in  working  iron.  In  most  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing nations  coal  and  iron  are  found  together,  and  manufacture  is  thus  greatly 
cheapened  by  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  transportation.  Some  of  the  deepest  coal- 
mines in  the  world  are  in  Belgium,  where  they  have  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  3,500 
feet  or  more  beneath  the  surface.  The  limit  of  deep  mining  is  said  to  be  4,000 
feet.  Coal  is  found  in  seams  or  beds,  which  vary  in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to 
sixty  feet.  In  Europe  these  seams  are  numerous  but  generally  thin ;  while  in  the 
United  States  the  coal-veins  are  le.^".  numerous,  but  those  now  developed  are  thicker 
and  more  easily  worked.  Until  the  introduction  of  the  steam-engine,  raining  was 
limited  to  shallow  excavations,  owing  to  lack  of  means  for  keeping  mines  free  from 
water.  The  presence  of  a  gas  called  fire-damp,  which  is  very  combustible,  and  has 
caused  many  great  disasters,  is  the  chief  peril  in  coal-mining.  The  use  of  safety- 
lamps,  through  which  a  flame  cannot  pass,  and  the  thorough  ventilation  of  mines  by 
means  of  steam-fans,  have  greatly  lessened  the  danger  from  this  source. 

Coke  is  extensively  made  from  bituminous  coal  by  heating  the  coal  until  the 
volatile  constituents  are  driven  off.  It  is,  therefore,  an  artificial  anthracite,  and 
makes  a  smokeless  fire.  Coke  is  extensively  used  in  smelting  metals,  particularly 
in  iron-  and  steel-working. 

The  gas  used  for  illuminating  and  heating  purposes  is  made  by  distilling  bitu- 
minous coal.  This  process  of  distillation  also  removes  the  hydro-carbons,  commonly 
called  coal-tar.  A  ton  of  coal  yields  about  10,000  feet  of  gas,  and  about  thirty 
gallons  of  this  tar.  One  of  the  products  from  the  tar  is  a  substance  called  aniline, 
which  is  the  base  from  which  many  beautiful  colors  are  made ;  and  much  of  the  dye- 
ing of  the  world  is  now  done  with  aniline  dyes.  More  than  a  hundred  varieties  of 
dyes  are  now  made  in  this  way,  and  these  have  largely  supplanted  vegetable  and 
animal  dyes.  Coal-tar  and  creosote,  a  distillate  from  it,  are  nsed  to  saturate  piles 
and  other  woods  used  in  harbor-structures  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  teredo, 
or  ship-worm. 

Petroleum. — This  natural  mineral  oil  is  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Its  existence  has  been  known  for  centuries,  and  it  has  been 
collected  from  springs  and  used  medicinally.  But  its  commercial  value  was  not 
realized  until  the  Pennsylvania  fields  were  developed.  Its  illuminating  qualities 
were  then  ascertained,  and  kerosene  became  the  common  illuminant  of  the  world.' 

>  The  strength  of  lights  is  estimated  by  "  candle-power."  The  standard  is  a  sperm  candle 
that  consumes  120  grains  of  spermaceti  in  an  hour.  A  sixteen-candle  gas-burner  is  estimated  to 
have  an  illuminating  power  equal  to  sixteen  of  these  sperm  candles.  The  illuminating  power  of  a 
pound  of  kerosene  is  equal  to  that  of  three  pounds  of  spermaceti.  Electric  lights  are  estimated 
upon  this  basis,  and  incandescent  lamps  are  marked  8,  12,  16  candle-power  and  upwards.  This 
method  of  computing  illuiniiKiting  power  is,  however,  uncertain  and  uutrustwortliy. 


176  r(nrMERCiAi.  aEoonAPiiY 

The  oil-fields  were  extended  by  the  boring  of  nianj-  wells ;  and  oil,  both  refined  and 
crude,  soon  became  au  important  export.  The  first  shipment  was  in  1802,  and  from 
that  date  there  has  been  an  almost  uninterrupted  increase  in  the  amount.  In  1899 
the  export  was  nearly  2,oo0,000  barrels.  The  total  value  of  the  oil  sold  to  foreign 
nations  has  been  more  than  a  billion  and  a  half  dollars.' 

The  field  from  which  nearly  all  this  oil  has  hitherto  been  obtained,  extends 
from  western  New  York,  across  Pennsylvania,  into  West  Virginia.  This  field  fur- 
nishes four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  of  oil  to-day.  Petroleum  is  found  also  in 
other  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  Lima  oil-field,  in  western  Ohio,  is  very  pro- 
ductive ;  but  the  oil  is  of  inferior  illuminating  quality,  and  is  largely  employed  as 
fuel  in  manufacturing.  A  pipe-line  connects  the  Lima  fields  with  Chicago.  Very 
productive  wells  are  now  in  operation  in  southern  California. 

The  richest  oil-fields  in  the  world  are  in  Eussia,  in  the  region  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  seas.  The  flow  of  oil  is  more  than  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  field ; 
but  the  present  facilities  for  storing,  transporting,  and  refining  it,  are  inadequate  for 
bringing  these  fields  into  their  real  commercial  importance. 

Nearly  all  petroleum  is  now  transported  in  bulk.  The  crude  oil  is  sent  to 
New  York,  Philadeljihia,  Baltimore,  Cleveland,  or  Parkersburg  by  pipe-lines  to  be 
refined ;  and  oil  is  usually  shipped  in  vessels  specially  provided  with  tanks  for 
carrying  it. 

Petroleum  as  fuel  is  used  iu  its  crude  form.  For  other  uses  it  is  distilled.  "  Gasalene,"  the 
first  and  lightest  product  secured  in  the  refining  operation,  contains  much  of  the  gaseous  part  of 
the  oil,  and  is  consumed  in  making  gas.  Naphtha,  the  next  product,  is  very  inflammable,  and  is 
used  to  a  limited  extent  for  lighting  purposes,  more  particularly  in  the  open  air.  Benzine,  the 
tliird  product,  is  much  used  as  a  solvent,  and  in  the  preparation  of  paint  and  varnish.  Kerosene 
is  made  in  the  next  stage  of  the  operation.  The  law  requires  that  it  shall  staml  a  r,i  tiiin  ti  st  of 
heat  without  taking  fire.  This  law  varies  in  different  states,  but  140°  is  a  standara  i.  -i .  (  hi  that 
stands  a  considerably  higher  test  than  kerosene,  is  called  head-light  oil,  from  tli.'  fart  iliat  it  was 
first  made  for  use  in  the  head-lights  of  locomotives.  Parafflne  oil  remains  after  tins,-  nils  havn 
been  distilled  from  the  crude  petroleum.  This  is  in  turn  refined,  and  from  it  result-;  y,,r'ifi,n  .  fi-.im 
which  nearly  all  the  candles  of  commerce  are  now  made,  it  having  almost  iniiivl)  suiinxrili'd 
tallow,  wax,  and  .spermaceti.  It  also  yields  an  oil  which  is  used  for  lubricating  pmposi  s.  I'hc  sul)- 
stance  skimmed  from  the  oil  during  the  refining  process  is  purified,  making  vaseline.  In  1878,  wliile 
a  well  was  being  sunk  near  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  for  petroleum,  a  reservoir  of  natural  gas  was  struck. 
A  great  explosion  followed,  and  when  the  gas  was  lighted  a  column  nf  fire  shot  into  the  air.  Au 
altfni|.i  I'l  iiiili  I  iliisgas  as  fuel  in  an  iron-mill  pi;oved  so  sucrissfiil  thai  otliir  wrils  were  sunk, 
an>l  hi  ::  I  .  I  lirst  generally  used  in  Pittsburg,  not  only  in  iiiui-aiid  ula-<-\\  m  kin;;,  bin  also 
/or  ■!  ;      i    -rs.     This  gas  is  inferior  for  illuminating  iMii|i--i  ~  ;  Imi  a-  lid  1  ii  -ivos  intense 

heat.  au.L  i.^  .ii>  .  a>ily  recrnlnted.  Its  imrticular  advantam'  in  _l,i  -  umI  iroa-workiug  is  due  to  tlie 
fact  that  it  gives  otf  im  siimkr.     Natural  gas  is  found  >  :  -  iion  with  petroleum  or  in  a 

form.ation  similar  to  tliai  in  wlii.h  |.i-tn)leum  exists.     I'.  I 'ciuLsylvania,  there  are  fields 

iu  wdiich  this  gas  has  bnn  ilrvrlniicd  in  western  New  ^^ul..  W  .  i  \  ii^inia,  and  parts  of  Ohio  and 
Indiana.  Some  wells  have  given  a  steady  flow  of  gas  for  years,  while  others  were  soon  exhausted. 
In  order  to  keep  up  the  supply,  new  wells  have  been  bored  and  new  fields  opened.  This  leads  to 
the  inferences  that  the  gas  is  not  forming  naturally  in  quantities  suflScient  to  satisfy  the  demand, 

>  Kerosene  oil  goes  more  generally  over  the  world  than  any  other  important  product  of  the 
Ignited  States.    There  is  a  growing  demand  for  it  in  Kurope,  .\sia,  .\ustnilia,  and  the  Pacific  islands. 

In  1809  the  United  States  exported  petroleum  anil  its  pRuluets  tu  the  value  of  over  Si.')(!,OI10,Ol1(). 


COMMERCIAL    CKOGHAPJIY  177 

mill  that  the  supply  may  become  exhausted.     The  I'nitcd  States  is  the  only  country  in  which  any 
ciinsidcralile  indnstfial  use  has  been  made  of  natural  u'as, 

Asjilmll.  mineral  pitch,  or  bitumen,  is  i,.iind  in  snuthern  California,  in  several  parts  of 
Siiuth  Anuriea,  and  in  Kurope.  The  hui^.si  ^iipplN.  however,  is  derived  from  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  where  is  a  lake  of  It.  The  primipal  use  ut  this  substance  is  for  paving  and  the  laying 
of  sidewalks.  Asphalt  results  also  from  the  thickening  of  petroleum  through  the  absorption  of 
oxygen,  and  it  is  hence  found  in  layers  exposed  to  the  air. 

Precious  Stones. — The  diamond  is  one  of  the  most  costly  of  precious  stones. 
Most  of  the  supply  of  this  jewel  comes  from  Cape  Colony,  in  South  Africa ;  but  a 
few  diamonds  are  mined  in  Brazil  and  India.  The  stones  are  sent  to  Amsterdam, 
Kotterdam,  Antwerp,  or  London  to  be  cut  before  being  set.  Diamond  is  the  hardest 
substance  known,  and  is  exceeded  in  value  by  the  ruby  only.  The  best  specimens 
are  from  India  and  Burmah.  Sapphires  coine  from  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Burmah. 
The  topaz  is  found  principally  in  Brazil,  Siberia,  Great  Britain,  and  Colorado; 
amethysts  in  India,  Persia,  Siam,  the  West  Indies,  and  Brazil;  emeralds  in  Peru 
and  the  East  Indies  ;  and  jasper  in  Tiidiii  and  China. 

A  variety  of  precious  stcnics  has  li.cii  found  in  the  United  States,  but  the  value 
of  the  annual  product  is  les.s  than  .SL'nii.diio.  The  trade  in  precious  stones  and  jewelry 
in  the  United  States  is  an  important  one,  but  no  traffic  is  more  subject  to  fluctua- 
tion. In  years  of  general  prosperity,  like  1899,  jewels  and  other  articles  of  pure 
luxury  find  much  more  ready  sale  than  at  other  times.'  The  making  of  imitation 
"  precious  stones  "  is  an  extensive  industry,  particidarly  in  France. 

Salt,  chloride  of  sodium,  is  found  in  solution  in  sea-water,  and  in  deposits 
which  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  being  as  widely  distributed  in  nature  as  it  is 
necessary  to  man.  Sea-water  is  evaporated  either  by  the  sun's  rays  or  by  artificial 
heat.  In  low  latitudes  and  where  the  climate  is  dry,  natural  heat  is  relied  upon. 
Much  of  the  salt  of  commerce  is  produced  from  sea-water.  Turk's  Island  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  supply  a  large  share  of  this  salt. 
Salt-beds  are  generally  worked  by  means  of  borings  and  shafts  into  which  fresh 
water  is  pumped,  to  be  again  pumped  out  and  evaporated  when  saturated  with  salt. 
There  are  great  salt-wells  in  France  and  in  Cheshire,  England.  Deposits  of  rock- 
salt,  however,  are  sometimes  excavated.  The  most  famous  salt-mines  in  the  world 
are  near  Cracow  in  Austrian  Poland.  These  mines  have  been  worked  for  centuries, 
and  contain  thirty  miles  of  galleries  and  halls  quarried  out  of  the  solid  salt.  There 
are  valuable  salt-mines  in  Germany  and  France. 

In  our  own  country  the  most  considerable  salt-wells  are  those  of  Syracuse,  and 
of  the  Genesee  region.  New  York ;  and  those  in  the  vicinity  of  Saginaw  Bay, 
Michigan.  Undeveloped  beds  of  rock-salt  exist  in  Louisiana.  On  the  Pacific 
slope  salt  is  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  sea-water,  and  also  from  dei)osits  of 
rock-salt. 

Salt  is  much  used  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  and  in  the  preservation  of 
foods,  especially  meat  and  fish.     This  mineral  is  so  abundant  and  widely  distributed 

'  In  1899  the  importation  of  precious  stones,  including  uncut  diamonds,  was  §3,718,000  in 
value.  The  importation  of  jewelry  and  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  w;is  about  §500,000  in  1894, 
while  in  1899  it  amounted  to  over  .$.'!, 000,000. 


178  COMMEllCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

tliat  it.  plays  but  a  small  part  in  poiiinicrce.  The  world's  product  of  it  is  estimated 
at  seven  million  tons  a  year.  Of  tlus  Great  Britain  furnishes  more  than  anj-  other 
country,  and  is  followed,  in  their  order,  by  the  United  States,  India,  Germany,  and 
Russia.  We  now  import  salt  to  the  annual  value  of  about  $500,000,  chiefly  from 
England  and  Italy.  Our  annual  consumption  of  this  mineral  is  over  two  million 
tons,  used  mainly  in  preserving  food-products  and  in  the  manufactures. 

v.  — MANUFACTURED    PRODUCTS 

Alcohol.  —  Alcohol  is  a  volatile  liquid  formed  during  the  fermentation  of 
vegetable  juices  that  contain  sugar.  In  different  countries  it  is  made  from  different 
substances.  The  chief  sources  from  which  alcohol  is  derived  in  the  United  States 
are  corn  and  other  grains,  and  potatoes.  In  Europe  alcohol  is  made  from  grapes, 
rice,  beets,  potatoes,  molasses,  grain,  and  various  fruits.  In  Asia  rice  is  mainly  used. 
and  the  product  is  known  as  arrack.  Alcohol  enters  largely  into  the  common 
beverages  of  most  nations,  and  its  manufacture  is  thus  an  important  industry.  In 
the  arts  and  manufactures  alcohol  is  of  great  value,  and  is  used  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  especially  in  making  varnishes,  medicines,  and  perfumes,  and  in  preserving 
animal  substances.  Alcohol  exists  to  a  small  per  cent,  in  the  fermented  liquors, 
such  as  wine,  cider,  beer,  and  ale,  and  to  a  large  per  cent,  in  the  various  distilled 
liquors,  such  as  gin,  rum,  whi.skey,  and  brandy. 

A  cheap  kind  of  alcohol,  sometimes  called  wood  spirits,  is  made  from  wood  and 
other  vegetable  fibres.  Its  manufacture  is  more  expensive  than  that  of  ordinary 
alcohol ;  but  not  being  used  as  a  beverage,  it  is  not  taxed,  and  hence  it  is  cheaper. 
It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  varnishes  and  for  similar  purposes. 

Buttons.  —  Buttons  are  of  considerable  importance  in  commerce.  They  are  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States,  yet  the  import  in  1888  reached  an  aggregate  value  of 
.$4,000,000.  This  importation  is  decreasing,  amounting  to  nearly  $500,000  in  1899. 
]'>uttons  are  made  from  a  great  variety  of  materials,  but  chiefly  from  vegetable  ivory, 
pearl  shell,  metal,  and  wood.  Wooden  buttons  are  covered  with  silk  or  other  mate- 
rials. Many  of  the  buttons  of  commerce  are  made  in  the  penal  institutions  of  France 
and  Austria,  and  are  so  cheap  that  much  of  the  world's  supply  is  thus  produced. 

Byes.  —  Until  the  introduction  of  aniline  coloring  matters,  nearly  all  dyeing 
was  done  with  colors  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin,  and  a  large  traffic  was  carried 
on  in  these  dyestuffs  which  were  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  jSIost  of 
this  trade  has  now  disappeared.  Previous  to  the  discovery  of  America  the  dye- 
stuffs  used  in  Europe  were  few  in  number.  Several  colors  were  added  from 
American  plants. 

The  chief  red  dyes  are  madder  and  cochineal.  :\Iaa(hM-  is  a  plant  raised  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia  and  Asia  .Minor.  ("ochineal  is  the  dried 
body  of  an  insect  that  lives  on  several  species  of  the  cactus  plant.  It  was  originally 
found  in  Guatemala  and  Mexico;  but  was  successfully  introduced  into  the  Canary 
Islands,  from  which  much  of  the  supply  now  comes. 


rOMMRRCT  \L    GKOnnAPIIY  179 

Blue  is  produced  from  indigo.  'I'lic  cultivation  of  tlic  indigo  ])lant  is  very  ex- 
tensive in  India,  and  on  a  smaller  scale  in  Indo-China,  Spain,  Japan,  Central  America, 
and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Indigo  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  dyestuffs,  owing 
to  the  permanence  of  its  colors.     An  inferior  imitation  is  now  made  chemically. 

The  chief  yellow  colors  are  produced  from  fustic.  This  tree  is  native  to  Mexico, 
lirazil,  and  the  West  Indies.  Fustic  logs  are  exported,  and  the  colonng  matter 
afterwards  extracted. 

Orange  colors  are  produced  from  annotto.  This  is  made  from  the  pulp  sur- 
rounding the  seeds  of  a  tree  that  grows  in  the  "West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Brazil. 
Besides  its  use  in  dyeing  fabrics,  annotto  is  in  demand  in  all  leading  dairy  countries 
for  coloring  butter. 

Logwood  and  nut-galls  are  the  chief  dyes  to  produce  black.  Logwood  is  the 
heart  of  a  tree,  native  to  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies.  The  bark  and  outside  wood  are  chopped  away,  and  the  coloring  part 
exported  in  the  log.  Nut-galls  are  excrescences  that  grow  on  many  kinds  of  trees, 
but  more  particularly  on  the  oak. 

Other  dyestuffs  are  used  to  a  limited  extent,  and  those  above  enumerated  are 
combined  to  form  other  colors.  But  artificial  dyes,  especially  aniline  colors,  are  in- 
creasing in  use  every  year. 

Glass.  —  Glass  is  a  chemical  combination  of  silica  with  an  alkali,  such  as 
potash  or  soda.  It  is  prepared  by  subjecting  the  mixture  to  intense  heat,  other 
ingredients  being  added  according  to  the  kind  of  glass  required.  Its  manufacture 
is  carried  on  very  extensively  in  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  France,  as  well  as 
in  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  finest  silica,  commonly  called  quartz,  used  in 
glass-making,  is  found  in  western  Massachusetts.  It  is  white,  and  is  pulverized  so 
that  it  resembles  flour.  This  powder  is  used  for  making  the  purest  crystal  glass, 
and  is  exported  to  the  various  glass-making  nations  of  Europe.  In  England  much 
of  the  silica  is  from  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but  the  finest  silica  found  in  Europe  comes 
from  Belgium  and  from  Fontainebleau  in  France.  Glass  is  very  extensively  used 
for  domestic  purposes,  and  in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  It  is  unaffected  by 
chemicals,  except  fluoric  acid,  and  is  much  used  in  laboratories.  When  in  its  melted 
state  glass  is  easily  worked. 

Glass-making  in  the  United  States  has  reached  a  higli  state  of  perfection,  not 
only  in  plate,  crystal,  and  cut  glass,  but  in  the  delicate  and  beautiful  colors  of 
cathedral  glass.     Considerable  amounts  of  this  arc  exported  to  Europe. 

In  Europe,  Bohemia  in  Austria  is  the  -natcsl  centre  for  fine  and  cut  glass; 
heavy  plate  glass  is  made  in  Paris  and  its  vicinity,  uml  the  cheaper  grades  of  window 
glass  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  England.  In  the  United  States  most  of  the 
cut  and  art  glass  is  made  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  while  cheaper  grades  are 
manufactured  in  western  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  whore  natural  gas  is 
available  for  fuel. 

The  United  States  imports  plate  glass  from  Belgium  and  England;  bottles 
and  vials  from  Germany  ;  window  glass  from  Belgium  :  and  small  glassware  from 


180  COMMERCIAL    GKOGnAPHY 

Austria   and    Germany  —  to   the   annual    value   of   about  !|4,000,()00.     Our  exports 
of  glass  of  all  kinds  aggregate  a  value  of  about  $1,500,000  a  year. 

Leather.  —  Hides,  skins,  and  their  manufactured  products  enter  largelj'  into  the 
commerce  of  every  civilized  country.  As  might  be  expected,  the  raw  material  is 
exported  mainly  from  countries  where  the  grazing  interests  are  largest ;  and  accord- 
ingly the  vast  region  watered  by  the  Eiver  Plate,  the  Brazilian  tablelands,  the 
British  territories  in  India  and  Australasia,  together  with  our  o^\n  western  plains, 
yield  the  greater  part  of  the  raw  hides  of  commerce. 

Hides  are  converted  into  leather  by  a  series  of  processes  called  tanning,  which 
consists  in  subjecting  them  to  the  influence  of  tannic  acid.  This  principle  is  derived 
from  many  natural  sources,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  bark  of  the  hemlock- 
tree.  The  location  of  tanning  industries  the  world  over  is  largely  determined  by 
the  proximity  of  forest  growths  which  yield  the  various  tanning-barks.  Oak  bark 
is  especially  valuable  for  tanning  purposes,  but  its  use  is  comparatively  small. 

Russia  leather  derives  much  of  its  excellence  from  the  bark  of  the  Russian 
birch  which  is  used  in  producing  it. 

We  annually  import  hides  and  skins  to  the  value  of  about  $40,000,000;  and 
these  come  to  us  largely  from  the  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  Jlexico,  and  Colombia, 
although  the  goat-skins  and  ox-hides  which  we  derive  from  British  sources  are  of 
great  importance.  We  buy  tanned  calfskins  of  France  and  Germany,  and  great 
quantities  of  skins  for  morocco  from  France  and  Great  Britain. 

We  export  sole-leather  and  upper-leather  to  the  value  of  about  $17,000,000  a 
year,  chiefly  to  supply  the  boot-and-shoe  factories  of  Great  Britain. 

The  manufactures  of  leather,  or  into  which  leather  enters,  are  very  numerous ; 
but  by  far  the  most  important  of  leather  products  are  those  of  footwear  and  gloves. 
In  these,  as  in  most  other  manufactures.  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  our 
own  country  are  the  leading  nations.  We  buy  gloves  to  the  amount  of  nearly 
$6,000,000  annually,  taking  our  supply  from  Germany  and  France.  We  buy  upper- 
leathers  to  nearly  half  that  amount  from  the  same  countries.  Our  domestic  manu- 
factures in  all  the  forms  of  leather  foot-coverings  are  so  active  and  extensive  that 
our  imports  of  finished  goods  of  this  type  are  relatively  small.  In  fact,  we  export 
about  $2,500,000  worth  of  leather  manufactures  a  year,  principally  to  the  West 
Indies  and  Canada. 

Paper.  — Paper  is  vegetable  fibre  made  into  pulp,  and  then  rolled  into  thin  sheets 
and  dried.  Until  within  a  few  years  its  use  was  limited  to  the  making  of  books, 
mauusrript,  wrappings,  etc.,  but  now  innumerable  uses  have  been  found  for  it.  The 
United  States  is  the  leading  paper-producing  nation,  with  Great  Britain  second,  and 
Germany  third  in  order.  Rags,  wood,  straw,  grass,  and  many  kinds  of  fibre,  are 
worked  up  into  paper.  Paper  pulp  moulded  into  shapes  for  ornamental  work  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  wood  and  metal.  This  material  is  called  papier-macM.  Articles 
are  made  from  this  by  applying  enormous  hydrostatic  pressure.  Papier-macU  is 
now  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  car-wheels,  the  core  of  which  is  made  of  this 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGItAPlIV  181 

substance.  Thus  made  they  are  less  brittle,  and  will  outwear  wheels  of  solid  steel. 
The  quality  of  paper  depends  upon  the  kind  of  fibre  used.  With  the  develoi)nient 
of  the  art  of  paper-making  in  countries  of  commercial  importance,  the  denuuul  for 
paper-making  material  has  become  very  great.  The  best  paper  is  made  from  fibre 
that  has  been  spun  and  woven,  such  as  linen  and  cotton,  and  rags  of  these  sub- 
stances are  of  much  economic  value.  Linen  rags  are  especially  valuable  for  making 
the  finest  and  strongest  paper.  Other  fibre,  particularly  that  of  wood,  is  employed 
for  common  paper.  Poplar  and  spruce  are  the  woods  most  used,  but  not  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  soft  woods.  Wood-pulp  is  extensively  made  in  JIaine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Pennsylvania,  and  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  paper  is  made  from  this  than  from  any  other  sub.stance.  It  is  also  imported 
from  Canada,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Germany.  Other  fibres  used  in  making  the 
coarser  kinds  of  paper  are  jute,  hemp,  and  straw. 

In  1899  rags,  wood-pulp,  and  other  paper-stock  were  imported  into  the  United 
States  to  the  value  of  over  $3,000,(100.  As  an  export,  paper  was  worth  about 
$r>,0()0,000  to  the  United  States  in  1899.  Jluch  of  the  fine  paper  manufactured 
in  the  United  States  is  made  in  western  JMassachusetts. 

Wine. — ^With  the  exception  of  raisins,  wines  and  brandy  are  the  only  impor- 
tant products  of  vine-culture.  From  the  oldest  recorded  time,  all  the  territory 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  has  yielded  the  grape  in  finest  varieties;  but 
to-day  this  fruit  is  grown  in  all  countries  of  the  world  that  lie  between  20°  and  50° 
of  latitude,  north  or  south.  In  our  own  country,  western  New  York  and  central 
Ohio  yield  a  fine  variety  of  this  fruit.  But  our  richest  wine-producing  section  is 
middle  and  southern  California.  The  grape  is  indigenous  to  the  territory  of  the 
United  States,  but  the  finest  California  product  is  the  result  of  graftings  from 
European  stock.  Thus  far,  however,  the  wine  of  commerce  is  principally  derived 
from  ircditonaui'au  countries,  especially  the  western  ones,  and  from  the  valleys  of 
the  Ivliinr  ;niil  1  »anube.  The  United  States  imports  wines  to  the  value  of  about 
f  7,0(»0,<)i)i)  a  yt'iiv.  mainly  from  France,  Germany,  and  Spain.  Brandy  comes  almost 
wholly  from  France.  The  wines  of  Germany  and  Spain  imported  by  us,  about  one- 
quarter  of  the  whole,  come  usually  in  casks,  while  that  from  France,  nearly  three- 
quarters  of  the  whole,  is  imported  in  bottles.  The  United  States  exports  very  little 
wine,  the  value  of  the  annual  shipment  averaging  recently  about  $050,000,  and  this 
almost  entirely  to  other  countries  of  our  own  continent.  The  Californian  product 
of  wine  is  such  that  in  spite  of  the  conservatism  of  trade,  and  of  the  opposition  of 
interested  importers,  it  must,  by  reason  of  its  many  excellences,  eventually  supplant 
the  various  European  products  in  our  own  market.  Sherry  is  the  jirincipal  wine  of 
Spain,  port  of  Portugal,  Burgundy  of  France,  and  various  white  wines,  known  as 
Rhine  wine,  of  Germany. 

Italian  and  Hungarian  wines  have  for  some  time  been  steadily  increasing  in 
commercial  consequence ;  and  the  former  are  now  largely  sold  to  France,  to  make  up 
for  the  decrease  in  the  French  supply  occasioned  by  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera. 


t'  OMMER  CIA  L    G  E  0  OR  A  I'H  Y 


VI.  -  MISCELLANEOUS    COMMODITIES 


Drugs  and  Chemicals.  —  The  iiriiiriiJiil  drui^s  of  coiiiiiiorce  are  cinchona,  opium, 
sulphur,  soda,  tartrate  of  potash,  potash,  and  the  "  chloride  "  of  lime. 

Cinchona,  or  Peruviaii  bark,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  dnigs.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  several  species  of  trees  that  are  indigenous  on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
These  trees  have  been  introduced  into  the  West  Indies,  India,  and  Ceylon,  and  are 
now  cultivated  with  such  success  that  much  of  the  world's  supply  of  cinchona 
comes  from  these  regions.  Quinine  is  made  from  this  bark,  and  is  a  trustworthy 
remedy  in  many  cases  of  malarial  fevers.  Cinchona  bark  valued  at  over  .^3(MI,(M)(i  is 
annually  imported  into  the  United  States,  and  quinine  to  the  value  of  f  950,000. 

Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  poppy -heads.  It  is  produced  almost  entirely  in 
India,  China,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor.  The  medicinal  properties  of  opium  are  very 
important;  and,  owing  to  the  great  value  of  the  drug,  more  efforts  are  made  to 
smuggle  it  into  restricted  countries  than  are  made  with  almost  any  other  article  of 
commerce.  The  government  of  Great  Britain  holds  the  monopoly  of  the  traffic  in 
opium  in  India.  Laudanum  and  morphini'  air  made  from  opium;  it  is  also  an 
ingredient  of  paregoric  and  many  other  |ih;iiiiiu((iitical  prejiarations.  The  annual 
import  of  this  drug  into  the  United  States  reaches  tlie  value  of  over  $2,000,000. 

Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  is  a  very  common  mineral,  and  is  found  chiefly  in 
combination  with  other  minerals.  When  found  pure  it  is  a  product  of  volcanoes. 
Several  rich  deposits  of  sulphur  occur  in  the  United  States,  particularly  in  Alaska ; 
but  most  of  the  world's  supply  comes  from  Sicily,  and  it  is  the  most  important 
mineral  product  of  Italy.  Its  principal  use  is  for  making  sulphuric  acid,  but  it 
is  also  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of  hard  rubber  and  of  gunpowder.  As  a 
constituent  of  iron  pyrites,  it  is  a  large  e.xport  of  both  Spain  and  Portugal.  Our 
annual  imports  of  sulphur  amount  to  over  $2,000,000,  almost  wholly  from  Sicily. 

Soda  is  imported  by  us  from  Chili  and  Peru,  where  it  chiefly  occurs  in  the  form 
of  nitrate  of  soda,  in  which  countries  this  salt  is  found  in  vast  beds.  From  it  is 
made  the  bulk  of  nitric  acid,  and  it  is  also  useful  in  tlie  manufacture  of  fertilizers. 
Nitrate  of  sodium  is  familiarly  known  as  (  Inli  sail  |ieli-e,  to  distinguish  it  from  nitrate 
of  potassium.  Carbonate  of  soda  is  exteusi\i'ly  usimI  in  tlu-  manufactures  of  glass 
and  soap. 

Potash  salts  are  also  an  important  article  of  commerce.  Nitrate  of  potassium, 
nitre,  or  salt  |ii'h'e,  is  extensively  imported  from  Peru.  It  is  used  mainly  in  the  mauu- 
facluie  111  ;4un|Hiwder  and  of  nitric  acid.  The  value  of  nitrates  annually  imported 
is  alinul  .S2.."in(),000.  Tartrate  of  potassium,  the  "tartar,"  or  "argol,"  of  commerce, 
is  a  product  of  wine-manufacture,  being  deposited  on  the  inside  of  wine-casks  in  a 
hard  crust.  It  is,  therefore,  chiefly  exported  from  wine-producing  countries.  We 
import  crude  tartar  to  the  value  of  about  $2,000,000,  most  of  wliich  conies  from 
Italy  and  France.  It  is  used  in  calico-printing  and  dyeing.  By  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  potash,  of  commerce,  however,  is  the  caustic  potash  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap  and  of  alum. 


COMMKRCIM.    aEOGRAI'HY  183 

Lime  "chloride"  is  the  most  important  substance  used  for  bleaching  and  dis- 
infecting purposes.  The  chief  supplies  of  the  world  are  derived  from  England, 
Germany,  and  Spain.  Our  own  purchases  of  it,  to  the  annual  value  of  aljout 
$1,500,000,  are  almost  wholly  derived  from  England  and  Scotland. 

Furs. The  skins  of  animals  were  formerly  much  used  for  clothing  in  countries 

where  the  winter  climate  is  rigorous.  But  with  the  increase  in  skill  in  manufac- 
turing cloth,  and  the  growth  of  commerce  between  nations,  cloth  has  superseded 
furs  for  general  use  as  apparel  among  all  peoples  except  those  living  in  the  coldest 
countries.  Furs  are  worn  in  winter  in  Europe  and  America,  not  only  for  the  comfort 
they  give,  but  also  to  a  greater  extent  for  adornment.  The  skins  of  the  fur-seal  are 
the  first  in  value  in  the  fur-trade ;  and  these  come  almost  entirely  from  Bering  Sea. 
The  seal  rookeries  of  this  sea  are  controlled  by  the  United  States  government,  and 
the  number  of  seals  killed  each  year  is  limited  by  law  so  that  these  animals  may 
be  preserved  from  extinction.  In  their  natural  condition  the  skins  are  coarse  and 
unsightly;  but,  by  an  elaborate  process,  the  long  hairs  are  plucked  out,  and  the 
soft  fur  remaining  is  dyed  either  black  or  deep  bronze.  The  method  of  treating  the 
skins  was  long  kept  secret,  and  all  skins  were  sent  to  London ;  but  the  process  is 
now  known  elsewhere,  and  many  skins  are  now  plucked  and  dyed  in  the  United 
States. 

The  squirrel-skins  of  commerce  come  almost  entirely  from  Siberia,  where  these 
animals  are  killed  in  great  numbers,  particularly  in  the  eastern  part.  Fox-skins,  la 
the  order  of  their  value,  are  the  black,  silver-gray,  blue,  cross,  white,  and  red. 
These  skins  come  from  British  America  and  Siberia.  Skins  of  the  wolf,  bear,  and 
sable  come  from  the  same  regions;  the  beaver  and  muskrat,  from  northern  America; 
the  rabbit,  from  Australia ;  the  nutria,  from  the  Plate  regions  of  South  America ; 
and  the  lion  and  tiger,  from  southern  Asia  and  from  Africa.  Sea-otter,  now  very 
rare,  inhabit  Bering  Sea.  The  skin  of  the  sea-otter  sometimes  brings  three  hundred 
dollars. 

The  annual  value  of  the  furs  and  skins  exported  from  the  United  States  is  about 
$3,000,000.  San  FrancLsco  is  the  leading  seal-skin  market;  and  London,  Leipzig, 
and  Nijui-jSTovgorod,  are  the  chief  fur-markets  of  Europe. 

A  close  imitation  of  seal-skiu  made  from  silk  is  a  common  article  of  commerce, 
as  it  is  much  lighter  than  fur,  less  expensive,  and  nearly  as  warm. 

Gums  and  Eesins.  —  Gums  and  resins  exist  in  great  variety.  The  more  important 
are  the  following  :  — 

Amber  is  the  fossilized  resin  of  trees  that  once  grew  in  northern  Germany  and 
The  Netherlands  and  in  parts  of  Siberia  and  Xorth  America.  Most  of  the  amber  of 
commerce  comes  from  northern  Germany,  where  it  is  either  dug  from  the  earth  or 
washed  up  by  the  sea.  Amber  has  many  uses,  depending  upon  its  quality  and  color. 
The  chief  uses  are  for  articles  of  adornment  and  for  making  varnishes.  Amber  is 
found  in  Burmah,  but  the  product  is  sold  wholly  in  the  adjoining  countries. 

Gnm-Arabic  is  a  resinous  gum,  gathered  from  several  varieties  of  acacia.     The 


18i  COMMERCIAL   GEUURAPHY 

chief  sources  of  this  gum  are  the  Barbary  States  and  the  Soudan  in  North  Africa, 
Turkej^,  Asia  Minor,  Australia,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  finest  qualities  are  used 
in  making  confectionery.  Other  and  more  important  uses  are  in  the  manufactures 
for  stiffening  and  giving  lustre  to  cloth,  for  making  paste,  and  for  sizing. 

Copal  is  a  resinous  gum  found  both  in  fossil  form  and  exuding  from  trees. 
The  chief  sources  of  supply  are  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  interior  of  Africa,  but  reaches  the  coast  in  trade.  Copal  also  comes  from 
the  East  Indies.  This  gum  is  extensively  used  in  making  varnishes  and  in  calking 
ships.     The  fossil  gum  is  the  best. 

Dextrine  is  artificial  gum  made  from  starch.  There  are  several  processes  for 
making  it.  The  uses  for  dextrine  are  similar  to  those  of  gum-arabic ;  and  it  has 
superseded  gum-arabic  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  manufactures.  It  is  used  in 
giving  the  adhesive  surface  to  labels,  postage-stamps,  and  envelopes. 

Kauri  gum  is  similar  to  copal.  All  the  kauri  gum  of  commerce  comes  from 
New  Zealand.  It  is  found  in  fossil  form,  and  also  exuding  from  the  kauri  pine. 
The  fossil  gum  is  more  valuable  than  the  fresh  gum.  Kauri  gum  is  used  in  making 
the  better  qualities  of  varnish  and  cheap  imitations  of  amber  adornments. 

Shellac  is  a  resinous  incrustation  formed  on  the  bark  of  various  kinds  of  trees 
by  an  insect  called  the  lac.  The  shellac  of  commerce  comes  from  India,  China, 
Siam,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  supply  is  derived  both  from  the  forests  and  from 
artificial  propagation.  In  the  countries  in  which  it  is  produced  shellac  is  much  used 
for  making  ornaments  and  trinkets ;  but  in  Europe  and  America  its  chief  utility  lies 
in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  and  sealing-wax,  and  in  stiffening  hats.  The 
lacquer-work  of  China  and  Japan  is  made  of  this  substance. 

Mastic  is  an  exudation  from  the  mastic  shrub,  grown  chiefly  in  Spain.  Portugal, 
and  the  Canary  Islands,  but  to  some  extent  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Jlinor.  It  is 
used  principally  in  making  varnish. 

The  numerous  uses  of  India-ruhher,  or  caoutchouc,  have  made  it  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  It  is  the  gum  of  several  varieties  of  tree  that  abound  in 
Brazil  and  Central  America.  Two-thirds  of  the  supply  come  from  the  basin  of  the 
Amazon  River.  Para,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  the  greatest  rubber-market  in  the 
world.  A  small  amount  is  derived  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  very  elastic, 
and  is  used  in  articles  where  this  characteristic  is  valued.  It  is  also  used  exten- 
sively in  making  water-proof  shoes  and  clothing.  When  heated,  and  incorporated 
with  sulphur  and  other  ingredients,  it  forms  a  hard  substance  known  as  "vulcanized  " 
rubber.  The  latter  is  used  in  making  a  great  variety  of  small  articles.  The  manu- 
facture of  rubber  is  carried  on  more  largely  and  to  greater  perfection  in  the  United 
States  than  in  any  other  country.  ■  In  1899  rubber  and  gutta-percha  were  imported 
into  the  United  States  to  the  value  of  about  $32,000,000;  the  export  of  rubber  goods 
amounted  tn  si.rc.'i.iKMi. 

Outtu-iiirrliK  is  ;i  gum  similar  in  many  respects  to  rubber.  It  is  softened  by  hot 
water  and  is  easily  wrought.  The  uses  for  gutta-percha  are  similar  to  those  of 
caoutchouc,  but  more  varied.  It  resists  the  action  of  water,  and  is  a  good  non-con- 
ductor of  electricity ;  hence  the  iisc  of  it  as  an  insulating  material  for  ocean  cables 


(•(iMMKRciAL  (;i:oai;M'iiY  185 

and  parts  of  elcrti-iciil  insti\iiuents.  The  sujijily  comes  entirely  from  the  East 
Indies. 

Tar  is  obtained  from  two  sources,  coal  and  wood.  "Wood  tar  is  obtained  by 
extracting  the  pitch  from  pine-trees  by  heat.  Tar  is  largely  produced  from  the 
yellow  pine  of  the  South  Atlantic  states.  In  Europe  it  is  produced  mostly  in 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Norway.     It  is  much  used  in  shipbuilding  as  a  preservative. 

Trayacanth  is  a  gummy  exudation  from  a  shrub  that  grows  in  Asia  Jlinor, 
Persia,  India,  and  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  easily  dissolved  iu  water,  and  is  used  in 
making  lozenges,  pills,  and  paste,  in  marbling  paper,  and  in  calico-printing. 

THrpentine  is  a  resinous  liquid  obtained  from  nearly  all  kinds  of  pine.  It  is 
made  in  Russia  and  Sweden,  but  the  greatest  amount  is  derived  from  the  yellow 
pine  of  the  South  Atlantic  states.  Crude  turpentine  is  distilled,  and  from  it  is 
produced  spirit  or  oil  of  turpentine.  The  solid  matter  resulting  from  this  distilla- 
tion is  the  rosin  of  commerce.  The  annual  value  of  the  foreign  trade  iu  these 
resinous  products  to  the  United  States  is  nearly  $10,000,000. 

Hops. —  The  blossoms  of  the  hop-plant  contain  a  bitter  principle  extensively 
used  in  the  making  of  beer  and  ale.  Hops  are  raised  chiefly  in  coimtries  where 
brewing  is  carried  on;  such  as  Germany,  England,  The  Netherlands,  and  Austria- 
Hungary.  In  the  United  States  hops  are  grown  in  the  states  of  New  York  and 
Washington.  Our  export  of  hops  is  from  |;3,000,000  to  $4,000,000  annually.  Our 
imports  of  hops  fluctuate  from  $500,000  to  $1,000,000.  They  are  mainly  from 
Germany.  In  1899  our  total  foreign  trade  in  hops  amounted  to  more  than  $4,000,000, 
and  the  trade  in  liquors  in  which  hops  are  used  to  nearly  as  much  more. 

Ivory. — The  ivory  of  commerce  comes  from  the  tusk  of  the  elephant,  of  the 
walrus,  and  from  vegetable  ivory  nuts.  The  elephant  ivory  is  the  finest  quality. 
It  comes  principally  from  Africa,  though  a  small  amount  is  derived  from  southern 
Asia.  The  annual  product  of  Africa  is  estimated  at  about  150,000  pounds,  but  the 
supply  is  decreasing.  The  elephants  are  killed  in  the  interior  of  the  continent; 
and  the  ivorj'  finds  its  way  to  market  by  barter  all  along  the  coast,  but  chiefly  on 
the  west  by  way  of  the  Congo. 

Walrus  ivory  is  of  inferior  qualitj',  owing  to  a  coarse-grained  core  through 
the  centre  of  the  tusk.  The  annual  product  does  not  reach  50,000  pounds.  Fossil 
ivory,  from  the  tusks  of  the  extinct  mammoth,  is  exported  from  Siberia;  but  it  is 
stained  and  of  poor  quality.  The  manufacture  of  celluloid,  or  artificial  ivory,  is  an 
important  industry,  particularly  in  the  United  States  and  France.  When  soft  it  is 
easily  moulded  into  shape,  and  it  has  very  generally  superseded  genuine  ivory. 

For  small  articles,  particularly  buttons,  a  palm-nut  that  grows  in  abundance  in 
the  northern  part  of  South  America  is  used.  This  nut  possesses  firm  texture, 
and  closely  resembles  ivory.     It  is  easily  worked  when  softened  by  hot  water. 

Lumber.  —  Trees  are  the  most  universally  useful  products  of  nature.  They  are 
used  iu  building  houses  and  ships,  in  making  household  utensils  and  ornaments,  and 
more  than  any  other  substance  as  fuel.      After  the  tree  is  felled,  and   the   wood 


186  CO\fMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

is  partly  wrought,  it  is  called  lumber.  In  several  countries  the  supply  of  wood  is 
limited  and  lumber  is  imported/  In  Europe  the  chief  lumber-producing  countries 
are  Scandinavia,  Germany,  and  Russia.  But  lumbering  is  not  carried  on  in  any  of 
these  countries  to  the  extent  that  it  is  in  the  United  States. 

The  forest  area  of  the  United  States  exceeds  that  of  omj  other  country,  and 
-wood-working  is  pursued  more  extensively  iu  the  United  States  than  elsewhere.  In 
1899  the  value  of  the  lumber  and  manufactures  of  lumber  exported  from  the  United 
States  was  over  $41,000,000.  The  imports  of  lumber  and  manufactures  of  lumber 
were  valued  at  $8,672,000.  Nearly  three-quarters  of  this  importation  was  of  logs 
and  lumber  from  Canada.  Of  the  lumber  exported,  more  was  sent  to  the  Argentine 
Eepublic  and  to  Australia  than  to  other  countries ;  but  the  articles  manufactured 
from  wood  were  exported  chiefly  to  the  nations  of  Europe. 

Soft  wood  of  the  various  kinds  of  cone-bearing  species  forms  most  of  the  lumber 
of  commerce.  This  includes  pine,  hemlock,  and  spruce  from  the  United  States  and 
<^anada,  spruce  from  Norway,  and  pine  from  Germany,  The  most  abundant  and 
valuable  pine-tree  in  the  United  States  is  the  yellow  or  southern  pine.  Not  only  is 
the  lumber  valuable,  but  most  of  the  turpentine  of  commerce,  the  resinous  sap  of  the 
tree,  comes  from  it. 

Owing  to  its  durability,  oak,  one  of  the  toughest  and  strongest  kinds  of  woods, 
is  used  in  shiiJ-building,  carriage-making,  and  iu  fine  cabinet-work.  Live-oak,  that 
grows  in  the  Southern  States,  is  the  best  wood  for  ship-building  purposes.  Oak  is 
exported  from  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Teak,  another  kind  of  wood  valuable  in  ship-building,  grows  in  southern  Asia 
and  adjoining  islands. 

Redwood  is  plentiful  in  California,  and  some  is  exported.  It  is  very  durable, 
soft,  and  easily  worked.  It  possesses  a  beautiful  grain  and  color,  and  is  susceptible 
of  fine  polish.  It  is  used  not  only  in  building,  but  in  interior  finishing,  for  making 
shingles,  and  in  cabinet-work. 

Oregon  jyine,  a  species  of  fir,  is  exported  from  the  Pacific  slope,  particularly  from 
Oregon  and  Washington.  It  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  building  purposes.  Owing  to  its 
elasticity  it  is  much  employed  in  ship-building.  Most  vessels  built  on  the  Pacific 
slope  are  made  of  this  timber. 

In  Australia  there  are  great  forests  of  J(tr rah.  This  is  similar  to  the  redwood  of 
California,  and  is  rapidly  making  its  way  into  conuncri'e. 

The  kauri  pine  of  New  Zealand  is  used  iu  all  kinds  of  building,  including 
ship-building. 

Black  walmtt,  used  in  ornamental  and  cabinet  work,  comes  mostly  from  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  supply  is  being  rapidly  exhausted. 

Maple  abounds  in  the  northern  United  States  and  Canada,  and  has  grown  into 
recent  demand  for  flooring,  cabinet-work,  furniture-making,  and  other  grades  of  fine 
work. 

1  Australia,  Cliina,  Japan,  and  Mexico  draw  from  the  United  Slates  largely  for  lumber,  their 
native  supplies  being  mainly  iu  almost  undeveloped  and  inaccessible  regions. 


rOMMKRCIAL    (lEOCHM'IIY  187 

MnlHiijuiiii.  ;i  Vfi-y  hi'ilvy  and  costly  tiinhcr,  is  iist-il  iiriiicipally  as  voiiPPr  in  the 
tiiiest  kiiiJs  of  cabinet-work  and  interior  linisliiug.  Tiiis  wood  comes  from  Central 
America,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Red  cedar,  used  in  lead-jieneil  making,  comes  entirely  from  Florida.  This  wood 
also  finds  some  use  in  cabinet-work. 

Among  other  kinds  of  wood  are  ebony,  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  used  for 
fine  cabinet-work ;  roaewood,  from  Brazil,  for  veneer-work ;  boxwood,  from  Spain  and 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  for  turning  purposes,  carving,  and  engraving 
blocks;  chestnut,  ivhite  wood,  and  ash  from  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  for 
interior  wood-finish. 

Tobacco.  —  Tobacco  is  a  plant  native  to  the  Americas.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  it  was  introduced  into  Europe,  and  its  use  spread  with  great  rajjiditv  in 
si)ite  of  the  opposition  of  church  and  state.  The  cultivation  of  the  plant  lias  now 
e.Ktended  to  many  countries,  but  the  best  tobacco  still  comes  from  the  New  World. 
The  annual  production  of  the  world  is  over  750,000  tons,  and  about  a  quarter  of  this 
amount  is  raised  in  the  United  States. 

Tobacco  is  an  article  of  great  money  value  to  the  world,  as  it  is  heavily  taxed 
in  every  country;  and  in  France,  Austria,  Italy,  and  Spain  the  sale  of  it  is  a  govern- 
ment monopoly.  It  has  been  exported  from  tlie  United  States  to  the  average  value 
of  nearly  $l.'r),000,000  a  year  for  the  past  thirty  years. 

The  leading  tobacco  regions  outside  of  the  United  States  are  Cuba,  tlie  Duteli 
East  Indies,  India,  Brazil,  and  Turkey.  Tobacco  stands  among  the  important  articles 
of  commerce  of  Europe  and  America.  Our  import  of  leaf-tobacco  has  a  value  of 
about  $10,000,000  a  year  from  Holland  and  Cuba;  and  of  manufactured  tobacco 
about  .'i!.'>,500,000  from  Cuba.  An  excellent  quality  of  tobacco  is  grown  in  the 
I'hilippines,  and  with  the  normal  development  of  these  islands  under  American  rule 
and  energy,  this  product  must  greatly  increase  in  value. 


INDEX 


[The  Introdiicti- 


:i,  being  but  a  review  of  the  principles  of  common-school  geography,  is  not  indexed. 
The  references  marked  k.  are  to  foot-notes.] 


Aberdeen,  87. 

Abyssinia,  103. 

Acacia.     See  Gums. 

Acapulco,  129. 

Adelaide,  90. 

Aden,  42».,  90,  93,94,  107. 

Africa,  105. 

Agave,  156. 

Agricultural  products,  65,  98, 
99,  101,  109,  128,  131,  146; 
implements,  76,  77,  94 n.,  100, 
152  ?t.,  154  «.,  155  H.,  157  n., 
171 ;  agriculture  England,  83  «. 

Alabama,  48,  71,  77,  92. 

Alaska,  45,  50,  52,  54,  78,  98, 
169. 

Albany  and  Schenectady  R.  R., 

Alcohol,    40,    163,     178.       See 

Spirits. 
Ale.     See  Brewing. 
Alen^ons,  114. 
Alexandria,  107. 
Algeria,  114, 115. 
Algiers,  39,  115. 
Allegheny  City,  75. 
AUentown,  76. 
Almaden,  140. 
Almonds,  113,  140. 
Alpaca,  157,  108.     See  Wool. 
Aluionn,  70. 
Ahim,  112. 


Auuizun.  157. 
Amber,  92  «.,  108,  183. 
Amethysts,  177. 
Amritsar,  92. 
Amsterdam,  41  )i.,  118. 
Anam,  114,  115. 
Anchovies,  125. 


Ancona,  35  ii. 
Andres  Islands,  102. 
Angola,  144. 

Angora  Wool,  105,  139,  168. 
Aniline,  109,  175. 178.   &eDyes. 
Animal  Products,  71,  99  h.,  109, 
•117.     See  Beef,  Pork,  Hides, 

Leather,  Furs. 
Animals,  Live,  103  n.,  108  n.,  152. 
Annotto.     See  Dyes. 
Anthracite.     See  Coal. 
Antigua  Island,  103. 
Antwerp,  41  n.,  124. 
Appalachioola,  71. 
Apples,  113,  163.     See  Fruits. 
Arabia,  163. 
Archangel,  136. 
Argentine    Republic,  41  «.,   64, 

110,  151,  152,  155,  157,  161, 

168. 
Argol.     See  Potash. 
Arkansas,  48. 
Arrack.     See  Alcohol. 
Arrowroot,  103. 
Art  Works,  142  «. 
Asphalt,  102,  103  «.,  151,  177. 
Aspinwall.     See  Colon. 
Astrakhan,  136. 
Asuncion,  158. 
Atchison,   Topeka  &  Santa  F6 

R.  R.,  40. 
Atliabasca,  98,  100. 
Athens,  140. 
Atlanta,  63,  77. 
Attar  of  Roses,  138. 
Atlleboro,  76. 
Auburn.  75,  76. 
Auckland,  97.      • 
Augusta  (Georgia),  63,  77. 
Australia,   09.   79.   80.   93,   94, 

137,  103,  166.  168,  180. 
188 


Austria-Hungary,  109  ;  com- 
merce, 34  ;  wheat,  48,  04,  65, 
resources  and  products,  142, 
143,  160  ;  cities  and  indus- 
tries, 143,  108. 

Azores  Islands,  143. 

Bacon.     See  Pork  Products. 
Bahamas,  Islands,  102. 
Bahia,  121. 
Balbriggan,  89. 
Balize,  103,  148. 
Balsams.  148,  153. 
Baltic  Ports,  108.  110. 
Baltimore.  35,  30  h..  42.  47.  -50  n., 

69. 
Bananas.  80,  103  u..  148  «..  103. 

154  H.,  163. 
Banca  Island,  110.  173. 
Bangor.  75. 

Banking  Centres.  66.  67,  93. 
Barbadoes,  Island,  103. 
Barcelona,  35  «.,  146. 
Bark,  Tanning.     See  Hemlock, 

Oak,  Birch. 
Barley,  162. 
Barometers,  172. 
Barranquilla,  154. 
Barter,  31. 
Basic  Steel,  51  n. 
Basque  Provinces,  146. 
Batavia,  119. 
Bath  (Maine),  70. 
Batum,  135. 
Bay  City,  72. 
Bayonne,  50  n. 
Bay  St.  Louis,  71. 
Beacons,  34. 
Beans,  131. 
Beaufort,  71. 
Beaver,  52.     .Sec  Furs. 


189 


Beech.  100,  lin.  Ml,  M-.'. 

Hee-culture,  113,  118. 

Beef  and  Beef  Products,  40,  02, 

81,  82  H.,  104,   120  H.,  141  «., 

142  n.,  155,  100-161. 
Beef  Extract,  155. 
Beer.     See  Brewing. 
Beet  Sugar,  100,  110,  142,  105  h. 
Belem.     See  Para. 
Belfast,  41  n..  80. 
Belgium,  Commerce,  34,  05, 123 ; 

resources,  123,  175. 
Belize.     See.  Balize. 
Benzine,  176.     See  Petroleum. 
Berbice,  104. 
Bering  Sea,  52. 
Berlin,  109. 

Berlin  (New  Hampshire),  76. 
Bermudas,  Islands,  102. 
Bessemer  Steel,  oln.,  150,  171, 

171  n. 
Bethlehem,  76. 
Beyrout,  139. 
Bicycles,  64,  76,  86. 
Biddeford,  75. 
Bilbao,  146. 
Billiton  Island,  173. 
Birch,  109,  180. 
Birkenhead,  85. 
Birmingham  (Alabama),  77. 
Birmingham  (England),  80. 
Bitumen.     .S'ee  Asphalt. 
Bituminous  Coal.     See  Coal. 
Black  Walnut,   186.     See  Tim- 
ber. 
Bleaching.  70.  87. 
Bloemfontein.  100. 
Blue  Vitriol,  109. 
Bogota,  153. 

Bolivia,  41  h.,  155,  156,  157,  158. 
Bombay,  42)i.,  92. 
Books,  81,94n.,  141  ».,  142  ».. 

154h..  180. 
Boots  and  Shoes,  57.  67,  74,  70. 

See  Leather. 
Bordeaux.  114. 
Borneo,  Lsland,  118,  119. 
Boston,  35,  60,  66,  67,  69,  16.5. 
Boston  &  Albany  K.  R.,  66,  67. 
Boston  &  Maine  R.  R. ,  66,  67. 
See  Glass. 


Bradford,  80. 

Brandy.  178,  181.     See  Spirits. 

Brass,  173. 

Brass  Goods,   57,   76,  86,   131, 

169.     .See  Copper. 
Brazil,  05,  151,  156,  163,  187  ; 

products   and    trading,    120- 

121;  chief  cities,  121, 
Bread  Stuffs,  48,  49,  54,  92  n., 

94,99  k.,  103«.,112?i.,117n., 

140, 141  n.,  143  k.,  145  n.,  157  k. 

See  Flour,  Wheat,  Maize. 
Bremen,  109,  110. 
Brewing.   57.  80.  80,  110,   W->. 

185.     See  Hops. 
Bricks.  71.  72.  73,  74,  83,  174. 
Bridgeport.  70. 
Bridgetown.  103. 
Brimstone.     See  Sulphur. 
Brisbane.  90. 
Bristol,  85. 
Britannia-ware,   76,    173.      See 

Tin. 
British  Africa,  105. 
British  Burmah,  91. 
British  Columbia,  69,  98,  99. 
British  Guiana,  104. 
British  Honduras.  101,  103. 
British  India,  64,  00,  114,  105, 

187. 
British  AVest  Indies,  101. 
Brito,  30. 
Brockton,  7(i. 

Bronzes,  109.     See  Copper. 
Brooklyn,  50  «.,  00. 
Brunswick,  71. 
Bru.s.sel.s,  41  ».,  124. 
Brussels  &  Jfalines  R.  R.,  33. 
Buda-Pesth,  143, 
Buenos  Ayres,  40,41  n.,  121,  152, 

158. 
Buffalo,  50  H,  50)1.,  02,  71,  72, 

100  II. 
Building-stone,  45,  .-)4,  07,  173. 
Bulbs,  117. 

Burgundy.     See  Wine. 
Burlaps,  107. 
Burlington,  76. 
Burmah,  British.  91. 
Burlon-on-Trent,  86. 


Butte  City  (Montana),  77. 
Butter,82,  88,  80,  97h.,  100.  104, 

117,  123,  141k.,  142  «.,  100. 
Butterine,  48  n. 
Buttons,   111«.,  142,   143,  147. 

170  K.,  178,  185. 

Cabinet-woods,  156,  180,  187. 
Cabinet-work,  180,  187. 
Cable  Codes,  42. 
Cacao.     See  Cocoa. 
Cadiz,  146. 
Caicos  Island,  103. 
Cairo,  46  n. 


cutta. 


76,  87,  92,  182,  185. 


California,  45,  46,  40  n.,  49  «.,  69, 
77,  130,  137,  148,  153,  165  n. 

Callao,  157. 

Cambodia,  114,  115. 

Camel,  32  k. 

Camphor,  119,  131. 

Canada,  railways,  40,  67  ;  coal, 
52  11.,  98  ;  trade,  72,  73  ;  land 
values,  99. 

Canadian-Pacific  Railway,  40, 
40  k.,  99. 

Canals,  36,  37,  38,  59,  60  ;  Eng- 
land, 84,  85,  89;  Sweden, 
141  ;  Germany,  108,  109,  110  ; 
France,  112,  113;  Nether- 
lands, 117  ;  Belgium,  123  ; 
China,  132  ;  Russia,  136.  See 
also  Panama,  Suez,  and 
Corinth. 

Canal  Boat,  Capacity,  .59  ii. 

Canal,  Intemceanic.  1.53. 

Canary  Islands,  178. 

Caiulle  Power,  175  k. 

Candles.  170. 

Cane  Sugar.  164. 

Canned-goods,  78,  163,  173. 

Canso,  42  ii. 

Canton,  .30,  93,  13:!. 

Caoutchouc.     See  Rublier. 

Cape  Breton  Island,  101. 

Cape  Cod,  70. 

Cape  Cod  Canal,  37. 

Cape  Colony.  105.  100. 


I'JO 


I.XDEX 


Cape  Nome,  78. 

Cape  Town,  lOo. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  143. 

Caracas,  151. 

Caravans  and  Routes,  32  ;;.,  39, 

84,  91  n.,  133,  137,  139. 
Carbonate  of  Iron,  170. 
Carbonate  of  Soda,  182. 
Cardiff,  85. 

Caribbean  Sea,  103,  148. 
Caroline  Islands,  111. 
Carpets,  67,  76, 123, 124, 139. 
Cars  and  Carriages,  74,  76,  94  n., 

120  «.,  171,  180. 
Cashmere  Shawls,  91,  133,  168. 
Caspian,  137. 
Cast  Iron.     See  Iron. 
Cattle,  49,  51,  77,  81,90,  99  n., 

109,  113,  115,  128,  129,  138, 

140,  146,  148,  149,  151,  155, 

157,  160,  160  n.,  161  «. 
Caustic  Potash.     See  Potash. 
Cayenne,  115. 

Cayuga  &  Seneca  Canal,  59  n. 
Cedar,   78,  103,  153 ;  red,  187. 

See  Timber. 
Celebes  Island,  118,  119. 
Celluloid,  76,  185. 
Central  America,  148. 
Cereals,  86,  95,   101,   109,   112, 

117, 124,  128,  136.    See  Items. 
Ceylon,  00,  91n.,  92,  163,  165. 
Champerico,  148. 
Champlain  Canal,  37,  59. 
Charcoal  175.     See  Coal. 
Charleston,  57. 

Charlotte  (North  Carolina),  77. 
Charlottetown,  P.  K.  I.,  101. 
Charts,  Marine,  34. 
Chattanooga,  77. 
Cheese,  70,  82  «.,  88,  97  n.,  100, 


See     IJrugs     and 


Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal, 

59. 
Chesapeake  Bay.  67. 
Chesapeake  Fisheries.  54. 
Chestnut,  113,  187. 


Cheyenne.  77. 

Chicago,  60.  71.  72;  73,  74. 

Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
R.R.,  40. 

Chicago  and  Northwestern  R.R., 
40. 

Chili,  152,  154,  155. 

China,  41,  41  «.,  42  n.,  04,  05, 
69  )(. ,  79  ;  opium,  32  n. ;  coal, 
52  )i. ;  resources  and  indus- 
tries, 132, 165, 167, 174  ;  trade, 
84,  91  m.,  93,  114,  133  n. ; 
cities  and  dependencies,  133. 

Chinaware,  81,  83,  141,  143  Ji. 
See  Pottery,  Porcelain. 

Chloride  of  Sodium.      See  Salt. 

Chocolate.     See  Cocoa. 

Christiania.  141. 

Cider,  178. 

Cigars,  80,  150,  150  n.  See  To- 
bacco. 

Cinchona,  92, 118,  119,  153,  157, 
158,  182. 

Cincinnati,  39  ?i.,  40  «.,  59,  74, 
174. 

Cinnabar.     See  Quicksilver. 

Cipher  Telegraph  Codes,  42  n., 
44. 

Citron,  113,  143. 

Clams,  161. 

Clay  and  Clay  Products,  83,  1 73, 
174.     See  Pottery. 

Cleveland,  50  n.,  59,  71,  72,  72  n. 

Clocks  and  Watches,  56,  63, 
94  n.,  131  H.,  138,  143  ?i.  See 
also  Watches. 

Clothing,  153.  See  Woollen, 
Cotton,  Silk,  etc. 

Cloves,  107,  119. 

Coal,  35,  45,  46  n.,  52,  62  ji., 
54,  09,  75,  76,  78,  81,  82  ii., 
83,  85,  86,  87,  88,  94h.,  95, 
96,  97,  98,  99,  99  n.,  100,  101, 
105,  106,  107,  109,  110,  113, 
117  n.,  118,119,121,123,  124, 
125,  126  n.,  128,  129  n.,  130, 
131,  132,  135,  130,  137,  138, 
139,  142,  151,  152,  153,  154, 
174,  175,  185. 

Coal  Mining,  175. 

Coca,  158,  162. 


Cochineal.     See  Dyes. 
Cocoa,  92,    102,  103  h.,    120 «., 
149,  151,  151)!.,  153,  154)1., 

156,  156  n.,  158,  162. 
Cocoanuts,     102,     104,     148  n., 

154  n. 
Cod,  54  n.,  78,  83,  88,  101,  113, 

141,  161. 
Coffee,  79,  80,  82))..  91  )i.,  92, 

96,  102,  103,  103)1.,   104,  115, 

117,   117  )(.,    118,    119,    120, 

120)).,  121,  121  n.,   122,  128. 

129)1.,  148,  149,  151,  loin.. 

153,  154,  154)1.,  156,   156  )i., 

157,  158,  162,  163. 
Cohoes,  76. 

Coke,  175. 

Colegrove,  50  n. 

Cologne,  110. 

Colombia,  U.  S.  of.  41  n..  151, 

153-154. 
Colon,  36,  40.  153. 
Colorado,  77,  104,  108,  125. 
Columbus  (Georgia),  77. 
Columbus  (Ohio),  77. 
Combs,  87. 
Comstock  Lode,  77. 
Concepcion,  158. 
Concord,  76. 
Condensed  Milk,  138. 
Congo,  185. 
Connecticut,  76. 
Constantinople,  35  )i.,  139. 
Consular  Service,  32. 
Copal  Gum,  184. 
Copenhagen,  142. 
Copper,  52,  52  ii.,  76,  77,81,  88, 

96,96)1.,  100.  101,  105.117)1. 

125,  128,  130,  137.   141.   143, 

146,  151,  152,  153,  154,  156, 

157,  158,  169,  172. 
Copperas,  92. 

Copra,  79,  107.     See  Cocoanut. 
Coral,  125,  120  ii. 
Cordage,  150,  167.     See  Hemp 

and  Sisal. 
Corea.     See  Korea. 
Corinth  Canal.  .36.  140. 
Cork,  113.  143)1.,  140. 
Cork  (Ireland).  89. 
Corn.     See  Maize. 


I.XDEX 


VM 


CrpusCln-isii,  71. 

Corsicii,  HI. 

Costa  Kica,  148.  149,  153. 

Cotton,  45,  47,  48,  .54,  59  n.,  04, 
68,  70,  70,  81,  82,  82  n.,  83,  85, 
87,  91,  92,  97,  102,  103,  104, 
llKi.  108)1.,  112  n.,  115,  117, 
118,  119,  121,  124,  125,  120, 
120  «.,  128,  136,  137,  1.38, 
13!l,  143  H.,  145,  145 «.,  149, 
153,  157,  160,  167. 

Cotton-gin,  47,  56. 

Cotton-goods,  67,  63,  64,  75,  76, 
77.81  n.,  85,  86,  87,  93,  9»«., 
101,  107,  109,  111,  112  n.,  113, 
114,118,119,  120n.,  123,  124, 
128.  129  n.,  133,  133  n.,  138, 
142,  14:!.  140,  149 «.,  151. 
l.Jl  n..  I.v2».,  154  H.,  155  H., 
157  n. 

Cotton-seed  and  Products,  48, 
48  H.,  73,  81,  82  n. 

Cotton-.spinning,  07,  63,  131. 

Coventry,  86. 

Cowes,  85. 

Cracow,  177. 

Crefeld,  168. 

Creosote,  175. 

Cryolite,  142. 

Crystal.     See  Gla,ss. 

Cuba,  51  n.,  65,  102,  115,  149, 
1.50,  165,  187. 

Cura^oa,  118. 

Currants  (Raisins  of  Corinth), 
140. 

Current  (Japan),  34,  78. 

Cut-glass.     See  Glass. 

Cutlery,  57,  86,  126. 

Cyanide,  169. 

Cypres.s,  78. 

Dahomey,  116. 

Dairy-products,  99  n.,  100,  101, 
103  n,,  140,  142, 149  n.,  151  n., 
154  ».,  160,  101.     Ace  Items. 

Dakotas,  73,  99. 

Dallas,  77. 

Damascus,  .39,  139,  140  k.,  170. 

Damietta,  107. 

Danish  Dependencies,  142. 

Danzig,  110. 


Dates.  140.  103. 

Davenport,  40  ii. 

Dayton,  77. 

Delagoa,  100. 

Delaware,  70. 

Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal, 
37. 

Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  37. 

Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  59. 

Delaware  River,  67,  68. 

De  Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  30. 

Delft-ware,  ll,s. 

Demerara,  1(1 1. 

Denmark,  O.",,  141,  142,  101. 

Denver,  77. 

Detroit,  72. 

Dextrine,  184. 

Diamonds,  105,  100,  118,  121, 
177. 

Dominion  of  Canada.  See  Can- 
ada. 

Douglas  Island,  78. 

Dover,  75. 

Dresden,  110,  174. 

Drugs  and  Chemicals,  68.  81, 
82  k.,  87,  91,  94  »i.,  99 «., 
103)i.,106,108H.,114, 120n., 
143,  143)1.,  145)1.,  155)1.. 
157?!.,  182-183. 

Dublin,  89. 

Duluth,  40,  71,  72,  73. 

Dunkard  Creek,  49  n. 

Dundee,  87. 

Dunedin,  97. 

Durban,  100. 

Dus-seldorf,  110. 

Dutch  Colonies,  187.  See  Neth- 
erlands. 

Dyes  and  Dyestuffs.  87, 91 ,  94  «. , 
103,  103)1.,  128,  148)1.,  151, 
153,  175,  178-179,  182. 

Earthenware,    83.       See    Clay 

Products. 
Easton,  76. 
Eastport,  70. 
Ebony,  102,  106,  187. 
Ecuador,  150. 
Edinburgh,  87. 
Eggs,    82)).,    99))..    100,    12.3, 

126  11.,  137  )i. 


I'.gypi.  liM,. 

KiderdowM,  142. 

Elba,  Island,  51  ii..  125. 

Electric  Appliances,  63.  04,  70, 

185. 
Electric  Light,  50. 
Elizabeth,  70. 
Elniira,  76. 
Embroideries.  138. 
Emeralds,  137,  150,  177. 
Emery,  140,  140  ». 
England,  174. 
Envelopes,  70,  184. 
Erie  Canal,  37,  40,  .59,  59  n.,  66, 

67,  72,  73. 
Erie,  Lake,  72,  74. 
Essen,  110,  110  ii. 
Essequibo,  104. 
Evansville,  59,  77. 
Exposition,  64  n. 

Fairhaven,  60. 

Falkland  Islands,  104. 

Fall  River,  03,  70. 

Farm  Tools.  See  Agricultural 
Implements. 

Farming  Implements.  See  Agri- 
cultural. 

Feathei-s,  151  n. 

Feejee  Lslands,  94,  97. 

Fernandina,  71. 

Fertilizers,  48,  141  «.,  142)). 

Figs,  113,  163. 

Fir,  78,  109,  141,  186.  See 
Timber. 

Firearms,  56.  76. 

Fish,  78,  80,  93,  126ii.,  141  ii., 
143)1.,  149)1.,  101. 

Fish  Culture,  54  ».,  162. 

Fisheries,  54,  65)1.,  70,  78,  83, 
85,  88,  92)1.,  98,  09,  100,  101, 
113,  114.  125,  135,  136,  141, 
14.3,  161,  162. 

FitchburgR.R.,  66,  67. 

Fiume,  142. 

Flax,  84,  86,  88,  89,  96,  99»!., 
109,  112,  123.  124,  125,  126, 
136,  143)1.,  146,  149)1.,  152, 
167. 

Florence.  35  n. 

Florida,  45,  48,  71,  102,  105  )i. 


192 


IXDEX 


Plouv,  40,  50  n.,  74,  7G,  77,  80, 
'.Hi  )i.,  120  «.,  Villi.,  136, 
142  n.,  151  n.,  154  ».,  106. 
See  Wheat. 

Flowera,  Artificial,  113. 

Fluoric  Acid,  179.     See  Glass. 

Fond  du  lac,  77. 

Food  Substances,  108  n.,  113, 
153,  154,  160-166. 

Forest  Products,  65  n. 

Forestry,  109. 

Forests,  50,  78,  86,  95,  96,  97, 
99,  100,  103,  109,  113,  118, 
121,  123,  128,  1.37,  140,  141, 
142,152,  152  n.,  163,154,15.5, 
156, 157,  158,  175,  186. 

Formosa,  131. 

Fort  Wayne,  77. 

France,  65,  82,  89,  109,  145, 
163,  168  ;  merchant  marine, 
34  ;  exports,  64  ;  canals  and 
railways,  112  ;  agriculture, 
112  ;  resources  and  manu- 
factures, 113;  cities,  114; 
colonial  possessions,  114,  116. 

Fraukfort-on-the-Main,  110. 

Frederioton,  101. 

Freetown,  106. 

French  Guiana,  114, 115;  Congo- 
Soudan,  114,  116. 

Fruits,  77,  91,  94  n.,  95,  96,  97, 
97  re.,  99  m.,  102,  103,  103  re., 
11.3,  115,  119,  120  n.,  125,  126, 
139,  140,  142,  14.S,  14.5,  145  k., 
146,  148,  149,  155,  157,  163. 
See  also  Items. 

Fulton,  Robert,  39  re. 

Furniture,  Household,  50,  57, 
72,  73,  77,  186. 

Furs  and  Fur  Skins,  32  re. ,  52, 
81,  110,  135,  136,  137,  183. 

Fustic,  163,  179. 

Galashiels,  87. 
Galena.     See  Lead. 
Galvanized  Iron.     See  Zinc. 
Galveston,  (18,  69,  71. 
Gambia,  106. 
Gambler,  93. 
Ganges,  91,  92. 
Gas,  Coal,  175. 


Gas,  Natural,  02. 

"Gasolene,''  176. 

Geneva  (X.Y.),  76. 

Geneva  (Switzerland),  138. 

Genoa,  35  re.,  120. 

Georgetown  (Guiana),  104. 

Georgia,  48,  03,  77. 

German  Silver,  172. 

Germany,  64,  65,  80,  112,  151, 
157,  163,  168;  merchant  ma- 
rine, 34;  trade,  107;  products, 
109 ;  manufactures  and  cities, 
108-111  ;  colonies,  111. 

Ghent,  124. 

Gibraltar,  39. 

Gin,  118,  168. 

Ginghams,  87. 

Ginseng-root,  131. 

Glasgow,  87. 

Glass  and  Glassware,  74,  75,  76, 
94  re.,  109,  123,  125,  142,  143, 
169,  171,  176,  179. 

Gloucester,  70,  78. 

Gloversville,  70. 

Gloves,  76,  143,  180. 

Glucose,  49,  72,  163,  164,  165. 

Goatskins,  180.     See  Leather. 

Gold,  45,  54,  77,  78,  88,  95,  95  re., 
96,  97,  100,  106, 106,  121,  128, 
137,  152,  153, 154,  156,  169. 

Golden  Gate,  69. 

Gotheburg,  141. 

Grand  Canal  (China),  132,  1.3.3. 

Grand  Canal  (Ireland),  89. 

Grand  Rapids,  77. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway,  100. 

Granite,  86,  173. 

Grape  Sugar.     See  Glucose. 

Grapes,  112,  125,  146,  163,  181. 

Graphite,  137. 

Grass  Cloth,  131. 

Gravesend,  84. 

Grazing,  82,  88,  95,  96,  97,  104, 
105,  109,  113,  117,  136,  138, 
139,140,141,146,  152  re.,  155, 
157,  160. 

Great  Britain,  81,  112,  145,  163, 
165,  168  ;  shipping  tonnage, 
34 ;  value  of  oommeroe,  34, 
64,  65  ;  canals.  ;!(i. 

Great  Inagua,  island,  102. 


Great    Lakes,    59,   68,  71,    72, 

73. 
Greece,  140. 
Greenland,  142. 
Grenada,  island,  102. 
Greymouth,  97. 
Greytown,  36,  149. 
Guam,  80,  111. 
Guano,  105,  154. 
Guatemala,  103,  148. 
Guayaquil,  156. 
Guaymas,  129. 
Guiana,  151  ;  British,  98,  104  ; 

French,  114,  115  ;  Dutch,  118, 

119. 
Gulf  Stream,  34. 
Gums  and  Resins,  93  re.,  94  h., 

106,  111,  128,  158,  183-184. 
Gunnybags,  167. 
Gunpowder,  76,  149. 
Gutta-percha,  119,  184. 

Haarlem,  118. 

Haddock,  83.  101,  161. 

Hague,  The,  118. 

Hair,  155,  155  re. 

Haiti,  149. 

Halibut,  54  re.,  78,  161. 

Halifax,  40,  101. 

Hamburg,  110. 

Hamilton  (Bermuda),  102. 

Hamilton  (Ontario),  100. 

Hammocks,  167. 

Hardware,  51,  143. 

Hartford,  76. 

Hats,  76,  1.56. 

Havana,  150,  1.50  n. 

Havre,  41  re.,  113. 

Hawaii,  Territory  of,  35,  79,  80, 

96. 
Hawick,  87. 
Hay,  99«.,  100,  109. 
Headlight-oil,  176. 
Hemlock,  52,  78,  180,  186. 
Hemp,  80,  86,  87,  97  re.,   106, 

124,  125,  126  n.,   128,  129  »., 

135,  136,  143»t.,  146,167,181. 
Hennequin.     See  Sisal  Hemp. 
Herring,  82  ii.,  83,  88.  101,  141, 

161. 
Hides,  52,  68,  77,  79,  81,  91,  92, 


IXDEX 


193 


Iliilos.  Conliniifd. 

W.'h..  04  k.,  '.)7  H.,  105,  10(1, 
lir,,  120)!.,  121,  120)1.,  128, 
l.il,  1.36,  137,  141  )!.,  148, 
149  )i.,  151,  151  )i.,  152,  152  ))., 
153,  154,  154 «.,  155,  150, 
157  n.,  158,  160,  180. 

Hobart,  97. 

Holland.     See  Netherlands. 

Holyoke,  CI,  76. 

Homestead  Law.s,  62  n. 

Hondo,  island,  130. 

Honduras  (British),  103. 

Honduras     (Central    American 
State),  148. 

Honey.     See  Bee-culture. 

Hong  Kong,  4ln.,  42n.,  90,  93, 
133,  144. 

Honolulu,  69,  79. 

Hops,  90,  97,  109,  185. 

Horsehair,  1.55. 

Horses,  32  )i.,  95,  00  ».,  109,  11.!, 
118,  128. 

Hosiery,  70,  89,  109. 

Hu6,  11.5. 

Hull,  85. 

Hungary,  142. 

Huntsville,  77. 

Huron,  Lake,  72. 


Idria,  172. 

Ilex  Tree,  158. 

Illinois,  77. 

Illinois    and    Michigan   Canal, 

60. 
Iloilo,  80. 
Immigrants,  62  )i.,  90,  105,  120, 

124  »j.,  128,  1.52,  155. 
Import  Trade,  32,  64  n. 
India.     .See  British  India'. 
India  Rubber.     See  IJubber. 
Indian  Corn.     See  Maize. 
Indian  Territory,  48. 
Indiana,  62,  77,  155. 
Indianapolis,  47,  77. 
Indigo,  91,  91  n.,  92,  103,  118, 

148,  153,  179. 
International  Congress,  64  n. 
Iquique,  155. 


Ireland,  48  ;  agriculture,  88  ; 
li.sherii-s,  88  ;  linen  luiinufac- 
ture,  89,  161. 

Ireland  Island,  102. 

Irkutsk,  41  n. 

Iron,  45,  47.  60,  61  «.,  52,  54,  63, 
74,  81,  83,  86,  87,  00,  100,  101, 
109,  110,  113,  114,  121,  123, 
125,130,131,  131  )j.,  137,  1.38, 

139,  142,  145,   151,  153,  156, 
1.57,  100,  170. 

Iron  and  Steel  Goods,  51,  56, 
67,  67,  70,  77,  81,  85,  80, 
94)1.,  98,  110,  117,  118,  119, 
120)1.,  124,  128,  ]29)i.,  130, 
141?!.,  142)1.,  143  n.,  145  )i., 

140,  140)1.,  151,  151)1.,  1.52)1., 
154)1.,  170-171. 

Iron  Mountain,  51  n. 

Iron  Ores,  51,  51  )i.,  72,  80,  88, 
140)1.,  141,  145  «.,  140,  150, 
170. 

Irrawaddy,  01,  92. 

Irrigation,  91,  92.  95,  00,  105, 
128,  14.5,  156. 

Isle  of  Wight,  170. 

Italy,  05,  82,  84  ;  merchant 
marine,  34  ;  early  commerce, 
35,  89 ;  resources  and  prod- 
ucts, 125 ;  railways,  120 ; 
cities,  120. 

Ivory,  animal,  03,  106,  107, 
111,  185;  vegeUble,  153, 154  «., 
156,  178,  185  ;  walrus,  185. 

Jamaica,  103. 

Japan,  41  n.,  42  «.,  65,  114,  1.30, 

131  ;  commerce,  131,  105,  174. 
Japan  Current,  34,  130. 
Jarrah,  06. 
Jasper,  137,  177. 
Java,  42)1.,  118, 110,  121  n.,  103, 

165. 
■lefferson  City,  46  n. 
Jerked  Beef,  152,  153,  155. 
Jersey  City,  6(>,  70. 
Jetties  of  the  Mississippi,  08. 
Jewelry,  81,  80,  113,  120  «,,  109, 

177,  177  )i. 
Johannesburg,  100. 
Johnstown,  70. 


Jute  and  Jute  Goods,  82  n. ,  80, 
87,01,01  «.,02,  120  «.,  143))., 


K.aiser  WiUulni  Caii.al,  108. 

Kanakas,  79. 

Kansas  City,  74. 

Kaolin,  174. 

Kauri,  Pine,  and  Gum,  97,  07  n., 
184,  180. 

Keewatin,  08. 

Kennebeck,  70. 

Kentucky,  48. 

Kerosene,  92,  94  ».,  103  ».,  119, 
120)1.,  124,  120)1.,  129)1.,  131, 
131)1.,  133,  135,139,140,145, 
148)1.,  151,  154)1.,  155,155)1., 
170,  170)1.     See  Petroleum. 

Key  West,  71,  150  n. 

Kharkov,  137. 

Khartum,  107. 

Kief,  130. 

Kiel,  108. 

Kimberley,  105. 

Kingston  (Canada),  100. 

Kingston  (Jamaica),  103. 

Kiushiu  Island,  130. 

Klondike,  78. 

Knitting  Mills,  70. 

Knoxville,  77. 

Korea,  131. 

Krefeld,  110. 

Kronstadt,  135. 

Krupp  Steel  Works,  110. 

Kuro  Siwo.    See  Japan  Current. 

Labor-saving  Inventions,  50. 

Labrador,  101. 

Laces,  114,  123,   124,  12.'>,   132, 

138. 
Laconia,  70. 
Lacquer-work,  1.30,  184. 
Lacrosse,  77. 
Ladrone  Islands,  80,  111. 
Lagos,  106. 
Lake  Erie,  72. 
Lancaster,  70. 
Lands.  Public,  02  n. 
La  Paz,  158. 
Larch,  109. 
Lard,  165  n.    See  Pork  Products. 


194 


INDEX 


Las  Vegas,  7". 

Laudanum.     .SVe  Opium. 

Lauuceston,  07. 

Lawrence,  7(i. 

Lead,  54,  83,  88.  9t!,  100,  113, 

125,  137,  139,   142,  140,  153, 

156,  158,  171. 
Lead  Pencils,  76,  187. 
Leadville,  77. 

Leaf  Tobacco.     See  Tobacco. 
Leather,  51,  52,  76,  81,  82  h.,  94, 

108  ».,  1.36,  141  n.,  142ft.,  160, 

180. 
Leather  Goods,  52,  57,  73,  70,  81, 

98,  103  ».,109,  110,  112,  113, 

128,  130,  143  ft. 
Leeds,  86. 

Lehigh  Valley  K.  R.,  40  n. 
Leipzig,  110,  183. 
Lemons,  143,  146,  163. 
Leon,  149. 
Lewiston,  01,  75. 
Liberia,  10:!. 
Licorice,  140,  140  n. 
Lifege,  124. 

Life-saving  Stations,  34. 
Light.     See  Coal,  Petroleum. 
Lighthouses,  34,  81. 
Lima  (Ohio)  Oil  Field,  176. 
Lima  (Peru),  157. 
Lime,  "Chloride,"  183. 
Limerick,  89. 

Limestone,  170, 174.     See  Build- 
ing-stone. 
Linen,  82  «.,   87,   89,   123,  142, 

167.     Sec  Flax. 
Linen  Goods,  57,  76,  81,  82  n., 

87,109,113,114,118,124,135, 

136,  146. 
Linen  Rags.     See  Paper  Stock. 
Linseed,  91,  130. 
Linseed  Oil,  167. 
Liquors,  86,  89,  91  »i.,  94  n.,  155, 

103,  185.     See  Spirits. 
Lisbon,  143. 
Lisle,  114. 

Litharge.     See  Lead. 
Little  Falls,  76. 
Liverpool,  85. 
Llama,  32».,  158,  168. 
Lobsters,  101,  161. 


Locomotives,  64,  76. 

Lodz,  136. 

Logwood,  149  n.,  179. 

London,  84,  113,  183. 

Los  Angeles,  71,  77. 

Louisiana,  48,  68,  165  n. 

Louisville,  46  ft.,  74. 

Louren9o  Marquez,  106,  144. 

Lowell,  63,  76. 

Lumber,  50,  71,  76,  77,  81,  94  n., 
98,  99,  100,  101,  109,  109  ft., 
120  ft.,  126  ft.,  128,  136,  141, 
143  ft.,  145  ft.,  148  ft.,  149  ft., 

152,  154  ft.,  155,  155  n.,  185- 
187. 

Lumbering,  70,  100,  186. 
Luzon,  79. 
Lynchburg,  70. 
Lynn,  76. 

Lyons,  41».,  114,  107. 
Lyttleton,  97. 

Macao,  144. 

Macassar,  119. 

Machinery,  56,  126  n.,  133  n. 

Mackerel,  101,  161. 

Macon,  77. 

Madagascar,  106,  114,  115. 

Madder.     See  Dyes. 

Madeira  Islands,  143. 

Madras,  42  ft.,  92. 

Madrid,  147. 

Madura  Island,  119. 

Magdeburg,  110. 

Magellan,  Strait,  35  n. ,  104. 

Maguey,  156. 

Mahogany,  102,   103,  128,  148, 

153,  187. 

Maine,  70,  75,  143,  149. 

Maize,  48,  49,  49  ft.,  59  ft.,  81, 

142  ft.,  152,  155,162,  16.3,164, 

165,  178. 
Malacca,  93. 
Malaga,  140,  147. 
Malt  Liquore.     See  Brewing. 
Managua,  149. 
Manchester  (England),  85. 
Manchester  (New  Hampshire), 

01,  75. 
Manchester    Ship     Canal.     30, 

86. 


Manila,  80. 

Manioc.     See  Tapioca. 
Manitoba,  73,  98,  99,  100. 
Maple  Sugar,  100,  165. 
Maple  Wood,  180. 
Maracaybo,  151. 
Marble,  45,  76,  125,  140,  174. 
Market-gardening,  63,  82. 
Marquesas  Islands,  114,  115. 
Marquette,  72. 
Marseilles,  35  ft.,  114. 
Maryland,  123. 
Massachusetts,  63,  70,  76. 
Mastic,  184. 
Matamoras,  129. 
Matches.  Swedish,  141. 
Mauritius.  Island,  106. 
Mazatlan,  129. 
Meat-packing,  57,  73,  74,  97. 
Meat-products,  103  «.,  124, 151  ft., 

154  ft.     See  Items. 
Mecca,  39. 
Mechlin,  124. 
Mediterranean,  114,  126. 
Melbourne,  95,  97. 
Memphis,  46  ft. ,  73. 
Menhaden,  161. 
Merchant  Marine,  61. 
Mercury.     See  Quicksilver. 
Meriden,  76. 
Meridian,  77. 
Mersey,  84,  85. 
Mesabi,  72. 
Metal  Goods,  57,  82  m..  108ft., 

109,110,113,114,124,136,1.37. 
Metals  of  Commerce,  169-173. 
Mexican  Southern  R.  R.,  40. 
Mexico,  64,  65.  129  ;  railways, 

40,  41  ft.  ;    natural  resources, 

128;    cities,  129. 
Miami  Canal,  37,  59,  72,  74. 
Michigan,  77,  165. 
Michigan,  Lake,  72. 
Middlebury,  70. 
Midway  Island,  35. 
Milan,  126. 
Millet,  91. 
Millinery,    113.      See   Bonnets, 

Hats. 
Milwaukee,  72,  73, 
Mineral  Oil,     See  Petroleum. 


195 


Mineral  IMtcli.     See  Asphalt. 
Miiu'ial    Resources    of    United 

States,  49,  52  (chart  53). 
Minneapolis,  46  n.,  74. 


ra,  90. 


River, 


Minnesota,  45  n. 
Mirrors,  172. 
Mississippi,  48, 

68,  73. 
Missouri,  48,  151. 
Missouri  Pacific  H.  R.,  40. 
Mittens,  76. 
Mobile,  71. 
Mocha,  121  n.,  163. 
Mohair,  139,  168. 
Molas.ses,  102,  103,  104,  142  n., 

165. 
Mollenclo,  158. 
Moluccas  Islands,  118,  119. 
Momba,sa,  107. 
Money,  defined,  32. 
Montana,  45,  77. 
Montevideo,  153,  155. 
Montreal,  37,  70,  100,  101. 
Morocco.     See  Caravans. 
Morphine.     See  Opium. 
Mosaics,  125. 
Moscow,  136. 

Mother-of-pearl.      See  Buttons. 
Moukden,  137. 
Mozambique,  144. 
Mulberry-tree,  112.  125,  130. 
Murcia,  146. 
Murray  River,  94,  95. 
Mutton,  82  n.,  104. 


131. 

Nails,  77. 

Nanaimo,  99. 

Nantucket,  60. 

Naphtha,  176. 

Nashua,  75. 

Nashville,  77: 

Nassau,  N.  P.,  102. 

Natal,  105. 

Natural  Gas,  4.'').  75,  176. 

Naval  Stores,  71. 

Nebraska,  165  n. 

Netherlands,  The,  123  ;  com- 
merce, .34,  65,  82,  109  n.,  110, 
117,  161  ;  products  and  manu- 
factures,    118;     cities,    118; 


[  Netherliuul.-j,  'I'lie,  Cimanued. 

colonial  po.ssessions,  118,  119, 

187. 
Nevada,  77. 
New  Almaden,  146. 
Newark,  76. 

New  Bedford,  6:i.  09,  70. 
XfW  Brunswick  (province),  70, 

98,  ini. 
New  Calfdonia.  115. 
Newcastle  (Africa),  105. 
Newcastle  (Kngland),  85. 
Newcastle  (N.  S.  W.),  96. 
New  England,  61.  62. 
Newfoundland,  98.   101,  101  »., 

161. 
New  Guatemala,  148. 
New  Guinea.     See  Papua. 
New  Hampshire,  75. 
New  Haven,  67,  70,  76. 
New  Jersey,  62,  76. 
New  London.  70.  , 
New  Mexico,  77,  156. 
New  Orleans,  46  n.,  07,  68,  09. 
Newport,  60. 
Newport  News,  70. 
New  San  Salvador,  148. 
New  South  Wales,  94  n..  95,  96. 
New  York  (City),  61  ».,  65,  66. 
New  York     (State),  46  n.,  49, 

62,  76,  115. 
New  York  Central  R.  R.,  40,  66. 
New  York,  Lake  Erie  &  West- 
ern R.  R.,  40,  66. 
New  Zealand,  42  h.,  94,  97. 
Niagara,  62. 
Nicaragua.  148,  149. 
Nicaragua  Canal,  35,  36,  37,  68, 

69,  101. 
Nickel,  45,  115,  172. 
Nijni  Novgorod,  137,  183. 
Nikolaiev,  136. 
Nitrates,  154.  1.54  n.,  157. 
Nitric  Acid,  182. 
Norfolk,  70. 
Normandy,  113. 
Norrkoping,  141. 
Northampton,  86. 
North  Australia,  96. 
North  Carolina,  48,  71,  77. 
North  Dakota,  45. 


Northern  Pacific  R.  R.,  7:!. 
North  Island  (.New  Zealand),  97. 
North  Sea  Canal,  118. 
Northwest  Territory,  100. 
Norway  and  Sweden,   34,   140, 

141. 
Norwich,  76. 

Nova  Scotia,  98.  101,  161. 
Nut-galls,  179.     See  Dyes. 
Nutmegs,  119. 
Nuts,  79.  103  ».,  113,  145,  145  »., 

153,  163. 

Oak,  50,  52,  109,  113,  142,  180, 

180. 
Oak-bark.     See  Leather. 
Oak-galls.     See  Dye.s. 
Oats,  49,  88,  100,  109. 
Ocean  Currents,  34. 
Ocean  Telegraphs,  42,  121,  153 

(map  43). 
Ocean  Trade  Routes,  34,  35. 
Odessa,  136. 
Ohio,  62,  75,  77. 
Ohio  Canal,  .59,  72. 
Oil  Cake,  81,  103  «.,  142  k. 
Oil  City,  76. 
Oil  Vegetable,  111. 
Oil  Wells,  77.  176. 
Old  Calabar,  106. 
Old  Providence  Lsland,  101. 
Olean,  50  n. 
Oleomargarine,  49. 
Olive-oil,  115,  125,  126,  126  ji. 
Olives,  112,  113,  115,  125,  140, 

143,  146. 
Omaha,  46  n.,  74. 
Omsk,  41  n. 
Onions,  Bermuda,  102. 
Ontario  (Province),  98,  100. 
Opium,  32  )!.,  91,  91  n.,  92,  93, 

115,  132,  139,  140,  140  n.,  182. 
Oporto,  143. 
Oran,  115. 

Orange  Free  State,  105,  106. 
Oranges,  102,  125,  143,  140,  1C3. 
Oregon,  97,  145,  186. 
Oregon  Pine,  180. 
Oshkosh,  77. 
Ostrich  Feathers,  105. 
Oswego,  72. 


196 


IXDEX 


Ottawa,  100. 
Ottawa  Canal,  40. 
Otter-skins.     .See  Furs. 
Ox-hides.     See  Leathev. 
Oxides  of  Iron,  170. 
Oysters,  54,  64  n.,  65,  125,  161. 

Pacific  Slope,  62,  03,  71. 
Pack  Animals,  150. 


Palermo,  126. 

Palm-nuts  and  Oil,  106,  185. 

Panama,  40,  129,  153. 

Panama  Canal,  36. 

Panama  Hats,  150. 

Panama  R.R.,  40,  153. 

Pan-American  Congress,  64  n. 

Panay,  80. 

Paper,  76,  87,  04)!.,  109,  117  h., 

118,  123,  130,   142,   167,  180, 

181. 
Paper-stock,  80,  118,  142  n.,  181. 
Papier-mach^,  180. 
Papua,  111,  118,  119. 
Para,  41  n.,  121,  184. 
Paraffine,  176. 
Paraguay,  157-158. 
Paraguay  Tea.   See  Yerba  mat6. 
Parana,  153,  158. 
Paregoric.     See  Opium. 
Paris,  41  n.,  109,  113. 
Paris  Green,  169. 
Parkersburg,  77. 
Paros  Island,  140. 
Passaic  Falls,  76  n. 
Patagonia,  152,  155. 
Paterson,  76,  76  «. 
Patna,  92. 
Pauillac,  114. 
Pawtucket,  76. 
Payta,  157. 
Pearl  Fisheries,  93. 
Pearl  Shell,  96  n.,  178. 
Pears,  113. 
Peat,  88,  118. 
Peking,  133. 

Penang  Island.  42  «.,  93. 
Pennsylvania,   52,    64,    76,    78, 

106;  coal,  52. 
Pennsylvania  K.  R.,  66. 
Penobscot,  70. 


Pensacola,  71. 

Penzance,  42  n. 

Peoria,  77. 

Pepper,  Cayenne,  115. 

Percheron,  113. 

Perfumes,  91. 

Pernambuco,  121. 

Persia,  137. 

Persian  Shawls,  41  n.,  87,  168. 

Perth,  96. 

Peru,  41  n.,  155,  156-157. 

Peruvian  Bark.     .S'ee  Cinchona. 

Pesth.     See  Buda-Pesth. 

Petroleum,  45, 46  ?i.,  49. 49  n..  54, 

65,  67,  75,  70,  77,  81.  82  n., 

99n.,100,  106,  117,  175.     See 

also  Kerosene. 
Pewter.     See  Tin. 
Phials.     See  Glass. 
Philadelphia.  35,  .39  n.,  49,  .50  «., 

51,  67,  68,  69. 
Philippine  Island.s,  69,   70.   80, 

167,  179. 
Phosphate  Rock.  71. 
Phosphorus,  in  iron  ores,  51  n. 
Phylloxera.     See  Wine. 
Pietermaritzburg,  106. 
Pig-iron,   51  n.,   170.     »S'ee  also 

Iron. 
Pilot  Knob,  51  n. 
Pine,  50,  109,  141,  142,  185,  186. 
Pineapples,  102,  144,  163. 
Pipe-lines,  49,  176. 
PiriBus,  The,  140. 
Pisa,  35  n. 

Pitch,  185.     .S'ee  Asphalt,  Pine. 
Pittsburg,  46?!.,  73. 
Plate-glass.     (See  Glass. 
Plate  River,  153,  155,  l.')0.  180. 
Plated- ware,  57,  172. 
Platinum,  54,  137,  153. 
Plumbago,  92. 
Plum.s.     See  Prunes. 
Plymouth,  85. 
Poltava,  137. 
Pomona,  77. 
Ponce,  80. 

Poplar.  See  Paper-stock. 
Poppie.s,  91.  See  Opium. 
Porcelain,  81,  83,  109,  113,  174. 

See  Chinaware. 


Pork,  81,  82?!.,  102. 

Pork  Packing,  74. 

Pork    Products,    82  ».,    141  ?!., 

142?!.,  162. 
Port  Arthur,  137. 
Port-au-Prince,  149. 
l^rt  Castries,  102. 
Port  Elizabeth,  105. 
Porter.     jS'ee  Brewing. 
Portland  (Maine),  70,  100. 
Portland  (Oregon),  71. 
Port  of  Spain,  102. 
Port  Said,  107. 
Porto  Rico,  80. 
Port  Wine.     See  Wine. 
Portsmouth  (England),  85. 
Portsmouth  (Ohio),  59. 
Portugal,  48,  82. 
Postal  System,  41. 
Potash,  48,  182. 
Potassium  Nitrate,  182. 
Fotatoes,    88,   99  n.,   100.    102, 

109,  157. 
Poti,  135,  136. 
Potosi,  158,  172. 

Pottery,  57,  74,  76.  113,  132, 
143?!.,  172,  174.  ,S'ee  also 
Chinaware,   Porcelain. 

Pottsville,  76. 

Poultry,  118. 

Prague,  143. 

Precious  Stones.  117,  121,  137, 
153,  177,  177  ?!. 

Preserved  Beef,  152. 

Pretoria,  106. 

Pribylov  Islands,  52. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  98,  101. 

Printing  and  Publishing,  73,  87, 

110.  " 
Proviclencc.  70. 
Provincetown,  69.  70. 
Prunes,  113,  142,  163. 
Pueblo,  77. 

Paget  Sound,  71. 
Pyrites,  Iron,  182. 

Quartz,  179.     See  Glass. 
Quebec  (City),  40, 40  ».,  70, 101, 
Quebec  (Piovince),  98,  100. 
Queensland,  96. 
Queenstown,  89. 


I.XDEX 

107 

Quioksilver,  54,  CO,  HC,  140  h.,  ' 

Ronkw,>o.l  I'otlory.  174. 

San  Domingo.  140. 

UiO,  17:!. 

K.isvs,  Attar  of,   1:!8. 

San  Francisco,  42  n.,  63,  09,  79, 

Quiiioy,  77. 

Kosi-tta,  107. 

80,  97,  183. 

Quinine.     Sec  Cincliona. 

lioscwood,  103,  187. 

San  Jos6  (California),  77. 

Quito,  150. 

Rosin,  143  H.,  1.55  h.,  185. 

San  Jos6  (Costa  Rica),  149. 

Rotterdam,  118. 

San  Juan  (Nicaragua),  149. 

Hacinc,  77. 

Rouen,  114. 

San  Juan,  80. 

nails.  Iron  and  Steel,  170,  171. 

Roumania,  64. 

San  Pablo,  69. 

Railway  Cars.      See  Cars  and 

Royal  Canal  (Ireland),  89. 

San  Pedro  (California),  71. 

Carriage.s. 

Rubber,  82  n.,  99h.,   100.  107, 

San  Salvador,  Island,  102. 

Kailways,  39-41,  60  ;  India,  91- 

111,  115,   120  n.,   121,   143  H., 

Sandalwood,  90. 

92  ;  China,  93, 133  ;  Australia, 

148,  149,  151  n.,  15.3,   154  «., 

Sandstone.     See  Building  stone. 

95,  96,  98,  100 ;  Germany,  108, 

1.56,  156  H.,  158,  184. 

Sandwich  Islands.     See  Hawai- 

109;  France,   112,    113,   117, 

RuMhtG Is,  57,  70. 

ian!  I>Ii.iu!s. 

120  ;  Belgiurii,  123  ;   Mexico, 

Kul.ir>,  !)-  ,,.,  177. 

S;iiil:i  r,;nL;ir:l,  77. 

129  ;  Japan,  131  ;  Russia,  136  ; 

Kni;s,  (hinilal,  Smyrna,  139. 

Siiuii.mu  iCI.ili),  150,  154. 

Turkey,    139 ;    Austria-Hun- 

Hum, 102,  lo;i,  104,119,105,178. 

Santo  Domingo,  149. 

gary,    142;    Venezuela,    151; 

Rumford  Falls,  75. 

Sapphires,  177. 

Argentine  Republic,  152. 

Russell,  97. 

Sardines,  125,  143,  161. 

Railways,  Street,  60. 

Russia,    109,    165,    168;     com- 

Sardinia, 125. 

Raisins,  46 n.,  138,  145,  140,  103, 

merce,    34,    82,    137,    137  n.; 

Saskatchewan,  99. 

181. 

caravan  routes,  39;  Siberian 

Satinwood,  102. 

Rangoon,  92. 

railroad,    41,    41  n.  ;    wheat. 

Savanilla,  154. 

Raritan  Canal,  37. 

48,  64,    166;    resources    and 

Savannah,  57,  71. 

Rattan,  93. 

products,  135 ;  cities,  135, 136  ; 

Schenectady,  70. 

Raw-hides.     &e  Hides. 

Siberia,  137. 

Scotland,  manufactures,  86;  ship- 

Raw-silk, 112  n.,  114.     See  also 

Russia  Leather,  135,  180. 

building,  86  ;  fisheries,  87,  88. 

Silk. 

Rutland,  76. 

Seranton,  76. 

Reading,  76. 

Rye,  49,  109. 

Screws.     See  Birmingham. 

Recife.     See  Pernambuco. 

Sea-Island  Cotton,  48,  160. 

Reciprocity  Treaties,  64  n.,  122  n. 

Sackcloth,  156.     See  also  Bur- 

Seal Fisheries,  52,  78,  87,  104, 

Redlands,  77. 

laps. 

183. 

Redwood,  96,  180. 

Saco,  75. 

Seal,  Hair,  52. 

Reunion  Island,  114,  115. 

Sacramento,  77. 

Sealing-wax,  184. 

Rhine  Wine,  181.     See  Wine. 

Saddles,  156. 

Sealskin,  52,  136,  183. 

■Rhode  Island,  70,  76,  106. 

Safety  Lamps,  175. 

Seattle,  09,  71. 

Ribbons,  Silk,  114,  168. 

Saginaw,  77. 

Sebastopol,  136. 

Rice,  .59  )}.,  68,  79.  91,  92,  93,  90, 

SagQ,  111. 

Seed.s  117,  142  n. 

107,109,  115,  117,  117?!.,  118, 

Saigon,  115. 

Segars.     See  Cigars. 

119,   130,    131,   131  n.,  152  n., 

Saint.     See  St. 

Selma,  77. 

157.  104. 

Salem,  60,  76. 

S^oul,  131. 

Rice-shelling,  110. 

Salmon,  54,  78,  101,  161. 

Sequatchee,  52  n. 

Richmond,  76,  77. 

Salt,  45,  72,  70,  77,  83,  102,  103, 

Seville,  146. 

T?iga,  136. 

109,  121,  137,   139,  142,  151, 

SfevTes,  174. 

Rio  Janeiro,  121,  150. 

152,  158,  177,  178. 

Sewing  Machines,  64,  76,  86. 

Riverside,  77. 

Saltpetre.     See  Nitrates. 

Sewing-silk,  168. 

Rochester,  76. 

Saluria,  71. 

Shad-fisheries,  161. 

Rockland,  75. 

Salvador     (Central     American 

Shanghai,  133. 

Rock-salt,  177.     See  Salt. 

State),  148. 

Shawls,  41  «..  87. 

Romans,  84  n. 

Samoa,  80. 

Sheep- raising.  95.  96.  109.  113 

aiome,  77. 

San  Diego.  71.  77. 

128,  146.  1-55,  157.  108. 

198 


INDEX 


Sheet-iron,  135,  173. 
Sheffield,  80. 
Shellac,  Gum,  184. 
Shell-fish.     See  Items. 
Sherry,  181. 
Shetland  Islands,  52. 
Shikoku,  Island,  130. 
Ship-building,  33  n.,  58.  68,  76, 
86,  87,  92,  100,  110,  111,  114, 
141,  156,  186. 
Ship  Subsidies,  58. 
Shoes,  56  n.,  86. 
Siberian-Pacific     Railroad,    41, 

41  n. 
Sicily,  125. 
Sierra  Leone,  106. 
Silica,  179.     See  Glass. 
Silk,  71,  82,  84,  91,  91  n.,   93, 
96,  112,  112  n.,  114,  115,  125, 
126,    126 ».,    130,    131,    132, 
133  «.,    136,    138,    1.39,    140, 
143.  143  n.,  146,  167-168. 
Silk  Culture,  96,  97,  146. 
Silk  Goods,  57,  76,  81,  110,  112, 
113,  115,  124,  130,  133,  136. 
1.37,  138,  168. 
Silver,  54,  77,  88,  93,  97  «.,  109, 
128,  130,  137,  139,  148,  151, 
152,  15.3,  154,  158,  171,  172. 
Silver  Coinage,  172. 
Singapore,  42  n.,  93,  173. 
Sisal  Hemp,  102,  167. 
Slate,  46,  83,  174. 
Smelting    (iron),    51,    74,     77, 

170. 
Smyrna,  139. 

Soap,  48,  74,  114,  142,  182. 
Society  Islands,  115. 
Soda,  182. 
Sodium  nitrate,  182  ;  carbonate, 

182. 
Sole  Leather.     See.  Leather. 
Solomon  Islands,  111. 
•Soiiicr.sut  Island,  102. 
■•  Soo"  Canal,  37,  59. 
Sorghum,  165. 
Soudan,  106,  107. 
South  Africa,  64,  169. 
South  America,  98,  130. 
Southampton,  85. 
South  Australia,  90. 


South  Carolina,  48,  71. 

South  Island  (New  Zealand). 
97. 

Spain,  84  ;  commerce,  89;  re- 
sources and  products.  145, 
146  ;  cities,  146,  147  ;  colonial 
possessions,  145  n. ;  iron, 
51  n.  ;  lead,  171. 

Spermaceti,  176. 

Sperm-oil,  54. 

Spices,  91,  92,  93.93,i.,  103  «., 
Ill,  115,  119,  128. 

Spindles,  83,  166. 

Spinning  flax,  136  ;  silk.  146. 

Spirits,  140  n. ,  163.    See  Alcohol. 

Spokane,  62. 

Sponges,  102,  103  «.,  1.39. 

Springfield  (Illinois),  77. 

Springfield  (Ohio),  77. 

Springfield  (Massachusetts).  70. 

Spruce,  78, 181,  180.  See  Paper. 
Timber. 

Srietensk,  41  n. 

Stanley,  104. 

Starch,  49,  163. 

Steam  Engine,  63,  77.  81  «.,  175. 

Steam  Locomotive,  33 

Steam  Navigation,  33. 

Steel,  51  n.,  63,  76.  83.    .S>(-  Iron. 

Steel  Goods.  See  Iron  and  Steel 
Goods. 

Steel-pens,  86. 

Stettin,  110. 

St.  Anthony's  Falls,  40  n. 

St.  Croix,  island,  142. 

St.  David's  Island,  102. 

St.  George's  Island,  102. 

St.  Gothard  Tunnel,  138. 

St.  Helena,  Island.  35. 

St.  .lohn.  Island,  142. 

St.  John  (New  Brunswick).  101. 

St.  .lohn's  (Antigua),  103. 

St.  John's  (Newfoundland),  101. 

St.  Joseph  (Missouri),  74. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  100. 

St.  Louis,  39  n..  46  )!..  73,  74. 

St.  Lucia,  Island,  102. 

St.  Mary's  Falls  Canal,  37,  59, 
00. 

St.  Paul,  40  n.,  74. 

St.  Petersburg,  41  n..  135,  130. 


St.  Thomas,  Island,  142. 

St.  Vincent,  143. 

St.  Vincent,  Island,  102. 

Stockholm,  141. 

Stockton,  77. 

Stockton  and  Darlington  R.  R., 

Stoneware,  174.  See  Earthen- 
ware. 

Stonington,  70. 

Strait  Settlements,  90. 

Straw.    See  Paper  Stock. 

Straw  Goods,  41  n.,  124,  133, 
153. 

Sturgeon,  135. 

Suakin,  107. 

Submarine  Cables.  See  Ocean 
Telegraphs. 

Subsidies,  Commercial,  58,  04  n. 

Sucr6,  158. 

Suez,  42  n.,  107. 

Suez  Canal,  35,  .36,  60.  84,  91, 
93,  106,  114,  126,  136. 

Sugar,  45,  68,  79,  80,  97,  102, 
103,  103  n.,  104,  106,  108  k., 
115,  117,  117  71.,  118,  119, 
120  «.,  121,  124, 128, 132,  133, 
136,  146,  148,  148  n..  149, 
152  n.,  153  n..  154  «.,  157,  164, 
165,  165  n.,  178. 

Sugar-beet,  109,  112.  124,  164. 

Sugar-cane,  91,  95. 

Sugar-refining,  57, 100.  110,  114. 

Sulphur,  54,  88,  125,  126  »i.,  139, 
142,  152,  166,  158,  170,  171, 
182,  184. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  170,  182. 

Sumatra,  118,  119. 

Sunderland.  85. 

Superior  Lake,  60. 

Surabaya,  119. 

Surinam,  118,  119. 

Suva,  97. 

Swansea,  85. 

Sweden.  >SV<;  Norway  and 
Sweden. 

Sweet  Potatoes,  164. 

Swine,  162. 

Switzerland,  66, 92, 109, 124, 1.38. 

Sydney,  79,  95,  97. 

Syracuse,  76,  177. 


Tacoma,  00.  71. 

Tobacco,  Cwtinned. 

I'nitiMl    Slates,    1(13,    106,    KiS; 

Ta-aiirof;.  Kill. 

70,  80,  81,  91,  92,   9:!,  94))., 

shipping    and    ship-buildinu, 

Taliiti.  Ill,  11.-). 

99)1.,  103,  105,  110,  112, 

115, 

33)1.,    68;    light-houses,    34; 

Talli.w,    'Mn.,    97ll.,    136, 

152, 

117, 118,  121, 126  ».,  128, 129))., 

canals,  37-38  ;  roads,  39  ;  rail- 

170. 

138,  141 11.,  142)).,  143  n. 

145, 

ways,  40  ;  telegraphs,  42  ;  area 

Tamatave,  115. 

145)).,  149,  149)1.,  150,  1 

jO)i., 

and  position,  45  ;  physical  re- 

Tampa, 71. 

153,  155)).,  158,  187.    See  also 

gions  and  natural  resources. 

Tannic  Acid,  180. 

Cigars. 

45;   population   and   occupa- 

Tanning, 52,  57, 180.    See  Hem- 

Tobolsk, 137. 

tions,  47;  raw  products,  47- 

lock. 

Tokio,  131. 

55 ;      manufactures,      66-57  ; 

Tapioca,  03,  157. 

Toledo  (Ohio),. 59,  72. 

commerce,  58-63;  industries. 

Tar  and  Pilch,  185. 

Toledo  (Spain),  146,  14G)i 

61-64  ;  exports  and  imports. 

Tariffs,  32. 

Tonquin,  93,  114. 

64-69  ;  principal  seaports,  05- 

Tartar.     See  Potash. 

Topaz,  137,  177. 

69  ;  minor  coast  cities,  70.  71  ; 

Tasmania,  94,  07. 

Topeka,  74. 

lake  ports,  70-73  ;  river  ports, 

Taunton,  70. 

Toronto,  100. 

73-75  ;  other  cities  and  towns, 

Tea,  32  H.,  71,  82  ».,  91, 

11  )!.. 

Tracy  City,  52  n. 

75-78 ;     possessions,     78-80  ; 

92  H.,  93,  115,  117.  118 

119, 

Trade  Route,  137. 

coal    production,    83 ;    steel. 

130,  131,  132,  133,  133  n. 

136, 

Tradewinds,  34,  37. 

83)1. 

137,  165. 

Tragacanth  Gum,  185. 

"  Upland  "  Cotton,  106. 

Teak,  91,  92,  186. 

Trans-Caspian  Railway,  41 

Uruguay,  153,  155,  150,  161. 

Tegucigalpa,  148. 

Trans-continental  Railway 

40, 

Utah,  165  n. 

Tehuantepec  Railway,  40, 

29. 

69. 

Utica,  76. 

Telegraphs,  42,  42  h.,  66. 

See 

Transit  Trade,  93)).,  124, 

1.38, 

Ocean  Telegraphs. 

138)).,  153. 

Valencia  (Spain),  146. 

Telephone,  42  «.,  56,  153. 

Transvaal,  105,  100,  109. 

Valencia  (Venezuela),  151. 

Tennes.see,  77. 

Treaties    of    Commerce. 

See 

Valenciennes,  114. 

Tennessee    Coal    &    Iron 

Co.. 

Reciprocity  Treaties. 

Valparaiso,  40, 154. 

52  «. 

Treaty  of  Paris.  79)).,  80. 

Vancouver,  40?).,  99. 

Terra  Cotta,  83,  174. 

Treaty  Ports.  130,  132. 

Vancouver  Island,  99. 

Terra  Haute.  77. 

Tree  Nurseries,  76. 

Van  Diemen's  Land.     See  Tas- 

Texas. 48,  68,  71,  77,  128. 

142, 

Trenton,  76,  174. 

mania. 

165  K. 

Trieste,  142. 

Vanilla,  115,  129  n. 

Textile  substances,  108  n., 

166- 

Triiicomali,  93. 

Vanua  Levu,  Island,  97. 

168 ;  grasses,  94  n.   See  Items. 

Trinidad,  Maud,  102. 

Varnishes.  97))..  176,  178,  183, 

Thermometers,  172. 

Tripoli,  39. 

184. 

Thibet,  133. 

Troy,  76. 

Vaseline,  170. 

Thread,  76,  87,  89. 

Trunk  Lines,  40,  84. 

Velvet,  114,  108. 

Threshing  Machines,  77. 

Tunis,  114,  115. 

Veneers,  187. 

Tientsin,  133. 

Turin,  126. 

Venezuela,  104,  151. 

Timber,  82  n.,  96,  102,  10.3, 

115, 

Turkey,  Empire,  138,  1.39, 

187. 

Venice.  35  n.,  126. 

118,  126)1.,  137,  151,155 

156, 

Turk's  Island.  177. 

Vera  Cruz,  129. 

157,  186,  187. 

Turpentine,    71,    94»).,    143  ii., 

Verdigris,  169. 

Timbuctoo,  Caravan  Station,  39, 

18.5-186.      See  Pine. 

Vermilion,  172. 

116. 

Tutuila.  80. 

Vermont,  76. 

Timor,  144. 

'•Tweeds,"  87. 

Verviers.  124. 

Tin,  54,  81.83,  93.  93)i..9l 

.  97, 

Typewriters,  64. 

Vials.     .Sec  Glass. 

97)).,  109.  119,  125.  151. 

158. 

Vicksburg,  46  n.,  73. 

173. 

Uganda,  107. 

Victoria  (Australia), 95, 95  n.,<M\. 

Titusville.  49  n. 

United    Kingdom.     157. 

See 

170. 

Tobacco,  32)1.,  47,  50,59)) 

,74. 

Great  Britain. 

Victoria  (BritLsh  Columbia\  99. 

200 


I.XDEX 


Victoria,  Island,  93. 
Vienna,  143. 
Villa  Rica,  158. 
Vine-culture,  'JO,  109,  125,  142, 

146,  181. 
Virginia,  48,  70,  76. 
Virginia  City,  77. 
Viti  Levu,  Island,  97. 
Vitriol.  1G9. 
Vladivostok,  41  n.,  137. 
"Vulcanized"  Rubber,  184. 

Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  59. 

Waco,  77. 

Wales,  81,  82,  83. 

Walnuts.  113. 

Waltham,  76.    ' 

Warsaw,  136. 

Washiiistoii,  42,  69,  71. 

Watch  Springs,  170  n. 

Watches,  56  n.,  63,  76.  94«., 
138,  138  n.  See  Clocks  and 
Watches. 

Waterbury,  70. 

Waterways,  30,  59,  112,  117, 
132,   152  «.. 

Wax,  115,  170. 

Weather  Reports,  27. 

Welland  Canal,  37,  40. 

Wellington,  97. 

Wellsville,  49  n. 

Western  Australia,  96. 

West  Indies,  80,  84,  103,  105. 

West  Indies  and  Panama  Tele- 
graph Co.,  103. 

West  Virginia,  77,  97. 


Whalebone,  54,  70. 

Whale  Fisheries,  54,  58,  09,  70, 

78,  87,  97,  101.  104.  141. 
Whale  Oil,  54,  142. 
Wheat,  .33,  47,  47  n.,  48.  59  h., 

64,  69,  71,  77,  81,  91.  91  n.. 

92,   92  n.,    96,    99,    100,    105. 

110,  125,  135,  1,38,  142  M.,  145, 

152,153,  1.53  «.,  154,  155,160, 

162,  166. 
Wheeling,  .39  n.,  46  H..  77. 
Whiskey,  49,  74,  89.  178.     See 

Spirits. 
Whitefish,  162. 
White  Lead.     See  Lead. 
Wilkesbarre,  70. 
Williamsport,  76. 
Williniantic,  76. 
Wilmington  (Delaware),  76. 
Wilmington   (North  Carolina), 

57,  71. 
Windmills,  118. 
Wine,  46  n.,  77.  82  H.,  112. 112  H., 

113,  114,  115,125.  126.  120»., 

143,   143  ))..,  145,   145;!.,   140, 

178,  181. 
Winnipeg,  99.  100. 
Wire  and  Wire  Rods.  70. 
Wisconsin,  77. 
Witwatersrand,  106. 
Wood,  129  n.,  133  «.,  152  n. 
Woodenware,    50,    57,    87,   98, 

90  n.,  108,  109,  112  71,.,  143  «., 

180.  185,  186  ;  buttons,  178. 
Wood-pulp,  141  «.,  180-181. 
Wood-spirits.     See  Alcohol. 


Wood-working,  74,  77,  87,  94  )<., 
100,  110,  125,  138,  180. 

Wool,  68,  77,  82,  82  n.,  94  n., 
9.5,  95n.,  96n.,  97,  97  n.,  104, 
105,  112  n.,  117  n.,  120  n., 
126  n.,  133,  136,  137,  139, 
140,  140  n.,  142,  142  ».,  152, 
152  »i.,  155,  157,  168. 

Wool  Growing,  96. 

Woollen  Goods,  67,  70,  75,  76, 77, 
81,82n.,83,  85,86,87,  89,9.5, 
97. 108  «..  109.  112  )i..  114.  115, 
123,124,131,136,137,140,108. 

Woonsocket,  76. 

Worcester  (England),  174. 

Worcester  (Massachusetts),  76. 

Wrought  Iron,  170. 

Wyoming,  77. 

Yams,  104. 

Yarn,  Woollen,  89,  124. 

Yemen,  163. 

Yerba  Mate,  157,  158,  165. 

Yezo,  Island.  130. 

Yokohama.  41  «,,  69,  131. 

Yonkers,  70. 

Yucatan,  102,  103. 

Yucatan  Hemp.     See  Sisal. 

Yukon,  78. 

Zanesville.  77. 

Zanzibar,  107,  111. 

Zinc,  45,  54,   90,   109,   123,   12.5, 

171,  173. 
Zlatousk,  41  n. 
Zurich,  138. 


YD  01 


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